HP Exam Notes (Shorter).docx

**[Chapter 1 Introduction to Health Psychology]** ***- Define Health Psychology*** → exciting and relatively new field devoted to understanding psychological influences on: a. how people stay healthy b. why people become ill c. how they respond when they do get ill → The collection of the d...

**[Chapter 1 Introduction to Health Psychology]** ***- Define Health Psychology*** → exciting and relatively new field devoted to understanding psychological influences on: a. how people stay healthy b. why people become ill c. how they respond when they do get ill → The collection of the discipline of psychology\'s specific educational scientific, and professional contributions to the promotion and maintenance of health, the development and treatment of sickness, and associated dysfunction. Healthy psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on the study of mental processes and behaviors that contribute to overall well-being and health. It emphasizes the interplay between psychological factors and physical health, exploring how thoughts, emotions, and behaviors can impact health outcomes. Healthy psychology aims to promote positive mental health, encourage healthy lifestyle choices, and prevent mental and physical health issues. ***- Four Causes of Diseases*** **→ Disease was believed to be:** a. Evil spirits entering the body b. The result of the imbalance of blood, black bile, yellow bile and phlegm c. God's punishment for evil-doing d. Advances in science looked to bodily factors rather than the mind as bases for health and illness **→ What disease could be caused:** *♦ Biological Factors:* \- Genetic predisposition: Inherited traits that increase susceptibility to certain diseases (e.g., heart disease, diabetes). \- Infectious agents: Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites that can cause illness (e.g., influenza, tuberculosis). *♦ Environmental Factors:* \- Physical environment: Pollution, exposure to toxins, and hazardous conditions can lead to health issues (e.g., respiratory diseases from air pollution). \- Social environment: Socioeconomic status, access to healthcare, and living conditions can affect health (e.g., poverty leading to higher rates of chronic illness). **♦** *Behavioral Factors***:** \- Lifestyle choices: Habits such as smoking, poor diet, physical inactivity, and excessive alcohol consumption can contribute to various diseases (e.g., obesity, cardiovascular diseases). \- Stress and coping mechanisms: Chronic stress and ineffective coping strategies can lead to mental and physical health problems (e.g., anxiety disorders, hypertension). **♦** *Psychological Factors:* \- Mental health conditions: Disorders such as depression and anxiety can negatively impact physical health and increase the risk of chronic diseases (e.g., cardiovascular problems). \- Health beliefs and attitudes: Individual beliefs about health, illness, and treatment can influence health behaviors and outcomes (e.g., reluctance to seek medical care). ***- Distinguish between Biopsychosocial model and Biomedical model*** **Biomedical Model =** all illness can be explained on the basis of aberrant somatic bodily processes; psychological and social processes are irrelevant to disease process. **♦ Approach:** Medical professionals diagnose and treat physical conditions through interventions like medication and surgery. Psychological and social factors are generally not considered relevant to health. **♦ Limitations:** This model can overlook the impact of psychological and social factors on health, leading to a more fragmented understanding of patient care. **Biopsychosocial Model =** health and illness are consequences of the interplay of biological, psychological and social factors. **♦ Approach**: Emphasizes the importance of psychological well-being, social relationships, and environmental factors in health. Treatments may involve psychological therapy, social support, and lifestyle changes, in addition to medical interventions. **♦ Strengths**: Offers a more comprehensive understanding of health, allowing for better patient care and acknowledging the role of mental health and social determinants in physical health. ***- Define the role of Health Psychologist*** → **Health Psychologists focus on:** a. health promotion and maintenance b\) prevention and treatment of illness c\) etiology and correlates of health, illness and dysfunction d\) the health care system and the formulation of health policy → **Role of Health Psychologist:** **♦ Clinical work:** conduct behavioral assessments, clinical interviews and personality tests **♦ Research:** researchers may focus such things as the causes of health problems, effective preventative measures, the best health promotion techniques, how to best help people cope with pain or illness and how to get people to seek treatment for medical conditions **♦ Public Policy Work:** work in government or private agency settings to influence public policy on health issues **♦ Patient Education:** They provide education about the psychological and emotional aspects of health and illness, helping patients understand how their thoughts and feelings can impact their physical health. **♦ Support and Counseling:** Health psychologists offer counseling and support to individuals coping with chronic illnesses, helping them manage the emotional and psychological challenges associated with their conditions. **[Chapter 2 Health Behavior Theories]** ***- Health Belief Model*** → whether a person practices a health behaviour depends on: a\) perception of health threat b\) perception of threat reduction → support for the Health Belief Model → using the Health Belief Model to change behaviour  ***- Define Theory of Planned Behavior*** → The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) predicts an individual\'s intention to engage in a behavior at a specific time and place. It posits that individual behavior is driven by behavior intentions, where behavior intentions are a function of three determinants: an individual's attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. ***- Define what Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)*** Learning how to change your thoughts (cognitions) and your actions (behaviours). Learning new skills to manage your symptoms  Thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are inter-connected, so if you change one, it influences the other two → Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a widely used psychological treatment that focuses on the interplay between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. It is based on the premise that negative thoughts and beliefs can lead to emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors, and that by changing these thought patterns, individuals can improve their emotional well-being and behavior. ***- Three Strategies of CBT*** CBT treatment usually involves efforts to change thinking patterns. These strategies might include: Learning to recognize one's distortions in thinking that are creating problems, and then to reevaluate them in light of reality. Gaining a better understanding of the behavior and motivation of others. Using problem-solving skills to cope with difficult situations. Learning to develop a greater sense of confidence in one's own abilities ***- Explain what is Trans-Theoretical Model (TTM) and how the (TTM) of Behavior Change can be used to understand and treat clients with problem drinking. Suggest the set of beliefs and behaviors at each stage.*** https://www.verywellmind.com/the-stages-of-change-2794868 The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) of Behavior Change is a framework for understanding how individuals change their behaviors. It posits that behavior change is a process that occurs in stages, and it emphasizes the importance of addressing the psychological readiness of individuals at each stage. **♦ Stages of the Transtheoretical Model:** **→ Precontemplation**: Individuals are not yet considering change and may be unaware of the consequences of their behavior. **→ Contemplation**: Individuals are aware of the problem and are thinking about change but have not yet committed to taking action. **→ Preparation**: Individuals intend to take action soon and may begin to make small changes. **→ Action:** Individuals actively modify their behavior and environment to overcome their problem. **→ Maintenance:** Individuals work to sustain the behavior change over time and prevent relapse. **→ Termination:** Individuals have fully adopted the new behavior and no longer feel tempted to revert to their old habits. They have complete confidence in their ability to maintain the change without fear of relapse. **♦ Application of TTM to Problem Drinking** **※ Precontemplation**: Use motivational interviewing to raise awareness of the negative consequences of drinking. **※ Contemplation:** Encourage reflection on personal values and the pros and cons of changing drinking habits. **※ Preparation:** Assist in developing a specific plan and provide resources, such as counseling or support groups. **※ Action:** Support the client in implementing their plan, celebrating small successes, and identifying challenges. **※ Maintenance:** Help the client develop long-term strategies to manage cravings and maintain their new behavior. **※ Termination**: For clients who reach this stage, it's important to celebrate their success and encourage them to remain involved in supportive communities. Practitioners can also help clients develop strategies for dealing with potential future challenges, ensuring they feel equipped to handle any temptation without relapsing. **[Chapter 3 Stress and Illness]** ***- Define stress*** *→* negative emotional experience together with predictable biochemical, physiological, cognitive, and behavioral changes, directed either toward altering the stressful event or other reflection. Stress is a psychological and physiological response to perceived challenges or threats, known as stressors. It can arise from various sources, including work, relationships, financial issues, health concerns, and major life changes. Stress can affect individuals differently, depending on their coping mechanisms, resilience, and the context of the stressor. ***- Common Stressors*** **Definition:** Something that can make people feeling stressful or burnout. **→ Academic Pressure:** Exams, deadlines, and heavy workloads. **→ Financial Issues**: Concerns about budgeting, debt, or financial instability. **→ Relationship Problems:** Conflicts with family, friends, or partners. **→ Health Concerns:** Personal health issues or worries about loved ones\' health. ***- Four Ways to Assessing Stress*** **Indicators of stress:** **o Self-Reports** -- perceived stress **Description**: Individuals provide subjective accounts of their stress levels, experiences, and coping strategies. This can include standardized questionnaires or open-ended responses. **o Behavioral Measures** -task performance under stress **Description:** Observations of behavior changes that may indicate stress. This includes monitoring changes in sleep patterns, eating habits, social interactions, and work performance. **o Physiological Measures** - heart rate, blood pressure **Description:** Objective measures of physiological responses to stress, which can reflect the body's stress response. **o Biochemical Markers** - catecholamines, cortisol **Description:** Analysis of biological samples to measure stress-related hormones or other substances that indicate stress levels in the body. ***- Five Roles of Relaxation Techniques managing Stress***: **♦ Reduction of Physical Tension:** Relaxation techniques like deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and yoga help reduce muscle tension, lower blood pressure, and slow heart rate. **♦ Enhancement of Emotional Well-being**: Practices such as mindfulness meditation and guided imagery can help calm the mind, reduce anxiety, and promote a sense of emotional balance and well-being, helping individuals feel more in control of their stress. **♦ Improvement in Sleep Quality**: Techniques like deep breathing exercises or progressive muscle relaxation can be effective in improving sleep quality. **♦ Promotion of Mental Clarity:** Meditation and mindfulness practices encourage a state of mental clarity and focus. By calming the mind, these techniques help reduce the cognitive load of stress and improve problem-solving abilities. **♦ Boosting Resilience to Stress:** Regular use of relaxation techniques can increase an individual's resilience to stress over time, making it easier to cope with stressful situations in the future. This leads to better long-term stress management. ***- Five Impact Of Chronic Stress On Mental Health*** **♦ Anxiety Disorders:** **Impact:** Prolonged exposure to stress can lead to the development of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. **♦ Depression:** **Impact**: Chronic stress is a major contributing factor to the onset and exacerbation of depression, as it can deplete the brain\'s resources for managing mood and emotions. **♦ Cognitive Impairment:** **Impact**: Persistent stress can impair cognitive functions such as memory, concentration, and decision-making abilities due to the detrimental effects of stress hormones like cortisol on the brain. **♦ Substance Abuse:** **Impact:** Chronic stress can lead individuals to turn to substances like alcohol, drugs, or prescription medications as a way to cope with their stress, potentially resulting in substance abuse or addiction. **♦ Burnout:** **Impact**: Continuous stress, especially in professional settings, can lead to burnout, characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment. ***- Explain General Adaptation Syndrome by Selye's (1982).*** → When an organisms confronts a stressor, it mobilises itself for action. → Regardless of the stressor, individuals will respond with the same physiological pattern of reactions. ***Example:*** Rats exposed to extreme cold and fatigue showed enlarged adrenal cortex, shrinking of the thymus and lymph glands, and ulceration of the stomach and duodenum. **Defintion:** GAS is a description of the process of how your body responds to stress. The easiest way to understand GAS is to view it as the different stages of stress and how your body reacts at each stage. GAS occurs in three stages, and each stage is characterized by a unique set of physiological changes that your body undergoes. **Three Stages of Selye's GAS:** **Alarm** -- organism becomes mobilised to meet the threat → During this stage, your body sends a distress signal to your brain. Your brain responds by sending a message to the body releasing hormones called glucocorticoids and adrenaline; these are also known as your "fight or flight" hormones. During the alarm reaction stage, you'll also experience elevated blood pressure and heart rate levels. **Resistance** -- makes effort to cope with the threat e.g., through confrontation → The resistance stage occurs after the reaction stage. During this stage, your body tries to thwart the changes that occurred during the reaction stage employing the parasympathetic nervous system. It typically occurs when whatever was triggering your stress has stopped. **Exhaustion** -- if organism fails to overcome the threat and depletes its physiological resources in the process of trying → Stress puts your body through a toll, and the exhaustion stage occurs after prolonged stress. You experience this stage after your body has gone through an extended period of stress. Here, even if the stressor persists, your body is too depleted to continue to combat it. This is the riskiest stage of general adaptation syndrome, as you are most prone to developing health conditions here. **Criticism of the General Adaptation Syndrome** o Assigns limited role to psychological factors o Assumes that responses to stress are uniform o Assesses stress as an outcome ***- Draw the diagram of Physiology of stress.*** **Sympathetic-adrenomedullary** **system activation** Cerebral cortex Hypothalamus Sympathetic nervous system Medulla of the adrenal glands Catecholamines: epinephrine + norepinephrine Affects a variety of tissues and modulate immune system Increased blood pressure, heart rate, sweating, constriction of blood vessels etc. **HPA system activation** Hypothalamus Corticothropin-releasing factor (CRF) Anterior Pituitary gland Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Adrenal cortex Glucocortisoids, esp. cortisol Conserve stores of carbohydrates Reduce inflammation in case of injury HPA Axis Activation: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a critical component of the body's response to stress. When a stressor is perceived, the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), stimulating the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This, in turn, prompts the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and adrenaline. https://www.verywellhealth.com/hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-hpa-axis-5222557 **[Chapter 4 Exercises]** ***- Define the types of physical activity*** **→ Isotonic Exercise -** required the contraction of muscles and the movement of joints. **Examples:** Weight lifting, push-ups, squats. **→ Aerobic Exercise -** required dramatically increased oxygen consumption over an extended period of time. **Examples:** Running, cycling, swimming, dancing. **→ Anaerobic Exercise -** require short, intensive bursts of energy but no increased amount of oxygen use. **Examples:** Sprinting, weightlifting, high-intensity interval training (HIIT). **→ Flexibility Exercises -** activity that enhance the range of motion of muscles and joints like stretching or yoga. **Examples:** Stretching, yoga, Pilates. **→ Strength Training -** exercises designed to improve muscles strength and endurances often using weight or resistance bands. **Examples:** Weightlifting, resistance band exercises, bodyweight exercises (like push-ups and squats). **→ Isometric Exercise -** is performed by contracting muscles against an immovable object **Examples:** Plank holds, wall sits, and static squats. **→ Isokinectic Exercise -** required for lifting and additional effort is required to return to the starting position **Examples:** Exercises performed on isokinetic machines (often used in rehabilitation). ***- Five psychosocial benefits of exercise*** **Reduce stress and anxiety** -- regular vigorous exercise **Improved cognitive processes** (better memory) -- fitness program with aerobic exercise **Enhanced self-concepts of individuals**, especially youngsters - regular exercise **Improved Mood -** the release of endorphins, which can enhance mood **Increased Social Interaction:** Group exercises or team sports provide opportunities to meet new people, build friendships, and strengthen social networks. **[Chapter 5 Theories of Pain Management]** ***- Describe the Gate Control Theory of Pain (GCT) by Melzack and Wall (1982) and provide ONE (1) criticism on this model.*** Integrated psychology into the stimulus--response pathway. Spinal cord -- gate exist, receiving inputs from: 1. **Peripheral nerve fibres** - The site of injury sends information about pain, pressure or heat to the gate. 2. **Descending central infleunces (brain)** -The brain sends information related to the psychological state of the individual to the gate - behavioural state, emotional and previous experiences or self-efficacy 3. **Large and small fibres** - constitute part of the physiological input to pain perception. **How does the GCT differ from earlier models of pain?** Pain as a perception. The individual as active not passive The role of individual variability. The role for multiple causes  **How the gate functions?** ** What opens the gate?** physical factors (injury, stimulation of large fibres) emotional factors (anxiety, worry, tension, depression) behavioral factors (focusing on the pain or boredom. ** What closes the gate?** physical factors (medication, stimulation of the small fibres) emotional factors (happiness, optimism or relaxation) behavioural factors (concentration, distraction) **Criticism on GCT** No one has yet actually located the gate itself. Model still assumes an organic basis for pain. The theory departs from the traditional dualistic models of health by its integration of the mind and the body - sees them as separate processes.