Indian Architecture History PDF

# University of Santo Tomas | College of Architecture | AY 2023-24 ## HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3 | LECTURE NOTES ### INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (2,500 B.C. – Present) #### INDUS REGION ##### Bharat - Home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations - Indian peninsula + portions of the Asian mai...

# University of Santo Tomas | College of Architecture | AY 2023-24 ## HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3 | LECTURE NOTES ### INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (2,500 B.C. – Present) #### INDUS REGION ##### Bharat - Home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations - Indian peninsula + portions of the Asian mainland; once included Pakistan, and Bangladesh - Bharat = Indian - Bhāratas were also a Vedic tribe - The realm of Bharat is known as Bharātavarsh in the Mahabharata - Bharat = King Bharat - Varsa = division of the earth or a continent #### Materials: 1. **SANDSTONE** - **USE:** Steps, facing work, columns. flooring, walls, road metal, ornamental carving, etc. - **AVAILABILITY:** A.P., M.P., Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat. Andaman Islands, Bengal, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir, Madras and U.P. - **TYPES:** Fine red and cream sandstone in Agra used and mainly as facing for rubble walling 2. **MARBLE** - **TYPES:** Makrana White Marble, Brown Albeta Marble, Dungri Marble, Albeta Marble, Pink Marble - **USE:** Sculpture and building decor 3. **GRANITE** - Usually found in the Deccan Plateau 4. **SOAPSTONE** - volcanic potstone (soapstone); metamorphic rock of talc schist; Found in Halebid, central and southern part 5. **TIMBER:** Lack of building stone and the availability of timber along the Indus and Ganges valley - **TYPES:** Teakwood - Burma, Softwood deodar - Northern mountain ranges, Shisham (Indian Rosewood) - hardwood found in the river valleys of the north. 6. **BRICKS & TERRA COTTA** - Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab #### RELIGION 1. **SECULARISM** - The Constitution of India, declares India to be a secular state with no state religion. - NOT a separation of religion from state, but a state that supports or participates in a neutral manner in the affairs of all religious groups and as well as atheism. 2. **VEDISM and BRAHMANISM** - Polytheistic religion brought around 1500 B.C.E by invading Aryan tribes who gradually conquered the earlier Indus Civilization (already in its decline). - **Veda** (knowledge) - scripture - **Vedism** - polytheistic sacrificial religion involving the worship of numerous male divinities (and a few goddesses), most of whom were connected with the sky and natural phenomena - **Brahmanism** - complex sacrificial religion that emerged in post-Vedic India (c. 900 BC) under the influence of the dominant priesthood (Brahmans), an early stage in the development of Hinduism. 3. **HINDUISM** - **Supreme god:** Brahma - **NOTE:** VEDIC Philosophies and + BRAHMANICAL Rituals = Hinduism - **Hindu** is derived from the river Sindhu or Indus, Santana Dharma (immemorial tradition) - **Sanskrit** term - **Sanskrit** is the sacred language - Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated from Hinduism which also shares the concept of dharma. Dharma moral order, duty and right action - Believes in **reincarnation-** rebirth, **kharma-** person's misfortune are the result of his or her own misdeeds in a previous life and **ahimsa-** nonviolence and respect for all living things. - **Saktas** - Considered one of the most debased sects of Hinduism; Erotic, sensual imagery (abundant creativity) - **Durga** - beautiful woman with a gentle face, rides a lion with 10 arms holding weapons to vanquish the demons who threaten the dharma. - **Kali** (fierce form) - portrayed dripping with blood, carrying a sword & a severed head, and wearing a girdle of severed hands and a necklace of skulls symbolizing her aspect as the destroyer of evil which means transformation. - **Caste System (VARNA)** – a social group, based partly on occupation which grew up with Hinduism - **Kshatriyas** - kings and warriors - **Brahmins** - priests - **Vaisyas** - merchants and farmers - **Sudras** - workers - **Untouchables** - outcasts 4. **JAINISM** - Established in the 6th c. BCE by Vardhamana, called Mahavira "the Great Hero" or Jina, the "Victorious One". - Based on asceticism and ahimsa, theory and practice of non-violence (non-injury to all living things) - **Agamas:** Sacred text ### INDUS CIVILIZATION (2,500 B.C.-) - Civilization began to develop around the Indus River; Indus civilization is based on three basic concepts - sacred, universal and ritualistic. - **5 major urban centres:** - Mohenjo-daro in the lower Indus Valley (UNESCO WHS) - Harappa in the western Punjab region - Ganeriwala in the Cholistan Desert - Dholavira in western Gujarat (UNESCO WHS) - Rakhigarhi in Haryana #### MERGARH, Pakistan - Neolithic site considered as the first urban civilization of South Asia in 6500-6000 BCE. Precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization. - Writing and counting, built drainage systems that ran into brick-lined sewers and dug canals to irrigate their farms were developed systems. - Early Mehrgarh residents lived in mud brick houses, stored their grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large basket containers with bitumen. - Mehrgarh is probably the earliest known center of agriculture in South Asia. #### HARAPPA - **LOCATION:** Punjab, Pakistan - **Fortified city; bastions, ramps, and stairs are evident** - **23,500 residents; Occupied about 150 hectares with clay brick houses** - **The grid plan is indicative of an evolved civil engineering principle that had developed at the time, which is not seen in the older towns of Mesopotamia** - **The Harappans had traded with ancient Mesopotamia, especially Elam, among other areas.** #### MOHENJO-DARO - **LOCATION:** Sindh, Pakistan - **Built around 2500 BCE, it was the largest settlement of the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation** - **Estimated population of at least 40,000 people** - **Abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined** - **Site was rediscovered in the 1920s** - **UNESCO WHS (1980)** - **Mohenjo-daro = Mound of the Dead (Sindhi language)** - **Planned layout with rectilinear buildings arranged on a grid plan.** - **Materials:** fired and mortared brick; sun-dried mud-brick and wood - **The covered area of Mohenjo-daro is estimated at 300 hectares** - **2 parts:** (1) Citadel; (2) Lower City #### LOTHAL - **LOCATION:** Bhal region of the Indian state of Gujarat - **Construction began 2200 BСЕ** - **Most extensively researched Harappan coastal site.** - **A bead factory and Persian Gulf seal was found this suggests that Lothal was into trading.** - **Archaeological excavations produced:** - A mound - A township - A marketplace - A dock connected to the river #### DHOLAVIRA - **LOCATION:** Kutch District, Gujarat State, India - **Located on an island in the Great Rann of Kutch** - **One of the 5 biggest Harappan sites** - **Discovered in the 1960s** - **Estimated to be older than Lothal** - **UNESCO WHS (2021)** - **Most distinguishing feature: made almost entirely of stone (Harappa and Mohenjo-daro are of brick)** - **Flanked by two storm water channels** - Mansar (north) - Manhar (south) - **Three divisions:** - The citadel / acropolis - The middle town - The lower town #### MAURYA DYNASTY - **First Indian Empire founded and headed by Chandragupta, 273-232 B.C.E** - **ASHOKA (273-232 B.C.), the greatest Mauryan king was converted to Buddhism and spend the rest of his life spreading it.** - **India became a great centre of learning with universities at Nalanda and Takshasila attracting scholars from China and Southeast Asia.** - **After Ashoka's death about 232 B.C., the Mauryan empire slowly declined.** #### BUDDHIST ART AND ARCHITECTURE: - Designed for congregational use - Monumental and sophisticated - **Symbolic forms:** - **Lotus** - divinity/ man's salvation - **Wheel** cycle of life, death and rebirth/ teaching of Buddha - **Four animals** - 4 quarters of the compass - **Lion** Sakyamuni Buddha known as the Lion of the Sakya Clan. - **Elephant, Horse, etc.** - **Tree** (enlightenment) #### ROCK-CUT SANCTUARIES/CAVE TEMPLES - First rock cut technique was initiated by Emperor Ashoka - **Easier to excavate a rocky mountain than pile up stone (it requires a high level of technology + cost to quarry, transport, and pile up stone)** - The Barabar and Nagarjuni caves excavated were hewn out of the granite rock. - **Rock - cut sanctuaries of Karli, Ajanta and Elephanta in the Western Ghats (mountain ranges)** - **Rhats (rock-cut temples) in Mamallapuram and Ellora** #### Consists of: 1. **CHAITYAGRIHAS/CHAITYA** - place of worship, assembly halls. Parts are: - Ornamental façade, with small rectangular door - Central vaulted hall with apsidal end divided by 2 colonnades into a nave and two side aisles. - Rock-cut stupa at the rear end of the hall with enough space around to perform the rite of circumambulation (pradakshina patha). 2. **VIHARA** - monasteries - Residence of Buddhist priests; meant for religious services; - principal symbol of worship which is the living quarters for monks with an open shared space or courtyard - Consists of one main or more small halls or open courtyard surrounded by rows of cells excavated in the walls on three sides. ##### Examples: 1. **Barabar Hill Caves** - **LOCATION:** Jehanabad district, Bihar, India - **Oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India; hewn from granite** - **2 groups situated in the twin hills:** - Barabar (4 caves) inscriptions in the name of "King Piyadası" - Nagarjuni (3 caves) inscriptions in the name of "Devanampiya Dasaratha" - **The caves were used by ascetics from the Ajivika sect** - **The sculptured surround to the entrance to the Lomas Rishi Cave is the earliest survival of the ogee shaped "chaitya arch" or chandrashala** 2. **Ajanta Caves** - **Contains 29 caves** - **Most magnificent examples of rock cut architecture and cave paintings which dates back to the 5th c.** - **The paintings and sculptures of major events in the life Buddha are considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art.** 3. **Ellora Caves** - **LOCATION:** Charanandri Hills, Aurangabad District of Maharashtra, India - **a multi-religious rock-cut cave complex with inscriptions dating from the period 6th century CE onwards** - **There are over 100 caves at the site, all excavated from the basalt cliffs** - 34 caves are open to public: 17 Hindu (caves 13-29); 12 Buddhist (caves 1-12); and 5 Jain (caves 30-34) - UNESCO WHS - **Chaitya Hall, Karli, 100 AD** - Nave of 17.7 m. high, 36.45 m. long and 12.9 m. wide. Leads to a monolithic stupa in the apse. - Aisle formed by a series of massive columns crowned with male and female riders on elephants. #### C. STUPA (TOPE) - Stupa = Sanskrit for heap - An important form of Buddhist architecture, though it predates Buddhism. - It is generally considered to be a sepulchral / funerary monument-a place of burial or a receptacle for religious objects from the Vedic age. - Dome-shaped mound similar to the funerary mounds used to mark the graves of great kings. - Derived from "STU" - to worship, to praise - Form is similar to tumuli and barrows - The body of the stupa grows out into space from the axis, evolving equally in all directions. It ties heaven + earth + unifying element - a center, the life force, an axis-mundi, the lingam, or gathering place. - Developed symmetrically about the center point. Develops symmetrically about an axis that rises vertically from the center point. - Oriented in accordance with the direction of space. #### PARTS OF A STUPA: 1. **CHATRA** - made of wood or stone - A parasol or umbrella can mean protection from suffering and harmful forces; - Symbolising high rank - Intended to honour and shelter the relics. 2. **HARMIKA** - Square pedestal on top of the hemisphere said to be the "dwelling place of the Gods" - Crowned by an apex (yatsi) 3. **ANDA** - Hemispheric cupola/ mound or solid dome, adorned with a 3-tier chatra (umbrella, sign of royalty) made of wood or stone - Dry masonry composed of bricks or hammer dressed stones laid in even courses. Sometimes plastered - Symbolized the infinite space of the sky. Contains the seed or the relic. 4. **MEDHI (upper passageway)** - Upper passageway / terrace 5. **VEDIKA**-railing around the Harmika and Medhi, composed of a stone framework, with vertical posts and cross bar. 6. **SOPANA** - staircase going to the terrace. 7. **TORANA** - Ceremonial / ornamental gateways - Positioned at each cardinal direction similar to the Aryan village gates. - In the 1st century BCE, four elaborately carved toranas and a balustrade encircling the entire structure were added to the Great Stupa at Sanchi - Torana was used to indicate the presence of direction axes (also can be done with niches, pillar groups, etc.) - Raised 4.87 m. from ground with 1.80 m. for the Pradakshina patha (passage). - With double staircase (Sopana) on the south. - The faithful would use this to circle the stupa to pay homage to the Buddha. - **Circumambulation** - Motion was always clockwise, since this kept one's right side (considered better) toward the relics at the center. - **Pradakshina-patha** (circumambulation) the faithful as a form of meditation would circle (clockwise, since this kept one's right side - considered better view toward the relics) the stupa to pay homage to the Buddha. - **Circular stone gateways at each cardinal direction around perimeter wall the structure. 3.0 m wide and 10.36 m. in height with two square upright pillars/columns with a lion or elephant as the capital.** - **Columns are supported by 3 horizontal panels (architraves).** - **Sculpture and relief of scenes from the life of the Buddha integrated with everyday events encourage familiarity + easier for onlookers to understand the relevance of Buddhist creed in their lives.** #### DIGAMBARAS - ("sky clad" or naked) - monks carry asceticism to the point of rejecting even clothing (even when they appear in public). #### SHVETAMBARAS - ("white clad") - monks wear simple white robes. The laity are permitted to wear clothes of any color. #### BUDDHISM - Religion and philosophy founded in northeastern India in the 5th c. B.C.E., and based on the teaching of Siddhartha Gautama, a Sakya prince known as Buddha the enlightened one. - Adopted some ideas from Hinduism doctrine of karma, but rejected caste system and all of its gods. - **Theravada** (the lesser vehicle) – remains faithful to ancient rules - **Mahayana** (the greater vehicle) - worship of bodhisattvas or creatures of charity - **Emperor Ashoka** - promoted Buddhism during the 3rd c. BCE, but it declined in succeeding centuries and was nearly extinct by the 13th c. #### SIKHISM - Emphasis on the principle of equality of all humans and rejects discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, and gender. - Believers wear turbans - All Sikh males adopt the surname "Singh," meaning a lion, and women use the surname "Kaur" meaning princess - The Sikh place of worship, or Gurdwara, is more than a place of worship. It has historically served as a refuge for the homeless and the destitute. Gurdwaras usually display the Nishan Sahib, a saffron-colored triangular flag bearing the khanda, the symbol of the Sikh faith. #### ISLAMIC - The majority Muslim districts in these provinces were awarded to Pakistan and the majority non-Muslim to India. - **Pakistan: Muslim** - **India: Hindu / majority non Muslim** #### MT. MERU - **SACRED MOUNTAIN** (Hindu, Jain and Buddhist cosmology) is considered to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes. - **"MIDDLE OF THE EARTH"- connection between heaven and earth.** #### B. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER - Monolithic - Monumental - Free standing construction - Rock-cut buildings - Laid down by Brahmanism (Barabar) and by Jainism (Udayagiri and Khandagiri). - Buddhist - magnificent development and artistic character ### GUPTA DYNASTY (320 - 550 c A.D.) - Largest political and military empire. Ruled most of northern India and eastern Pakistan, parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan - Period of HINDU renaissance - **GOLDEN AGE of India:** - Education - inventions and discoveries - Culture - art, architecture, music and literature #### MANDIR - Hindu or Jain temple #### DEVALAYA - temple (going to the gods) #### PRASADA - Hindu religious offering #### Hindu Temples are: - Sacred structure and ABODE of their GOD - CRADLE of Knowledge, Art and Architecture - The Hindu Temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger the process of inner realization - Follow set of principles of design and construction for art and architecture based on their scriptures - Mathematical and diagrammatic basis for generating design. - Metaphysical plan of a building that incorporates the course of the heavenly bodies and supernatural forces. - Symbol of the purusha or primordial man. - Mandala - generic name for any plan or chart which symbolically represents the cosmos (magic diagram of the cosmos). An expression of sacred geometry. #### Vastu Purusha Mandala - (Principles of Design and Construction) - Constitutes the mathematical and diagrammatic basis for generating design. - Metaphysical plan of a building that incorporates the course of the heavenly bodies and supernatural forces. - Purusha refers to energy, power, soul or cosmic man. - Accurate laying out of the temple ground plan in relation to the cardinal directions and the heavens. Meeting ground of heaven and earth - Mathematical and diagrammatic basis for generating design. - Metaphysical plan of a building that incorporates the course of the heavenly bodies and supernatural forces. - **STHAPATIS:** temple priest-architects who design and construct the temple according to the sacred architecture found in the Agamic scriptures. - **kumbhabhishekam,** - consecration ceremony that lasts several days. - **pujas** - act of worship #### SHILPA SHASTRAS - (Science of Silpa - Arts and Crafts); icons, stone murals, painting, carpentry, pottery, jewelry, dying, textiles, etc. #### VASTU SHASTRA - (Science of Architecture); building houses, forts, temples, apartments, village and town layout, etc. - Built at picturesque and harmonious places near natural source of water, forests, gardens, inside caves, on top of hills abundant with plants and animals. - The oldest temples that were built of brick and wood no longer exist. Stone later became the preferred material. - If no source of natural water: - Pond may be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. - Water should be symbolically present at the consecration of temple or the deity. #### HINDU TEMPLES - are found in diverse locations each incorporating different methods of construction and styles: - MOUNTAIN temples such as Masrur - STEP WELL temple compounds such as the Mata Bhavani, Ankol Mata, and Huccimallugudi - FOREST temples such as Kasaun and Kusama - RIVER BANK and SEA SHORE temples such as Somnath. - Temple is usually in the center of the village. - The entire arrangement is called grama vinyasa. - Rule of thumb: central area demarcated for the temple should at least be 1/9th of the total area of the proposed township - The temple itself should always face east, considered as the most auspicious direction-the place of origin of the sun - Materials used for temple building varies from timber to mud, plaster, brick and stone during all periods and throughout India. - Oldest temples built of brick and wood no longer exist. - Stone later became the preferred material - made of hard crystalline rock with carvings on it or soft stone covered with countless figures preferably granite and sandstone. - Played an important role in the overall appearance, construction techniques and monumental character of these temples. #### Symbology - **Pada** (foot) - column - **Jangha** (trunk) - parts of the superstructure over the base - **Gala / griva** (neck) - the part between moulding which resembles the neck - **Nasika** (nose) - any nose shaped architectural part - **garbhagrha** - represents the heart and the image the antrayamin (the indwelling Lord) #### TEMPLE COMPLEX 1. **GARBHAGRIHA** - Inner sanctum, the womb-chamber, where the primary idol or deity is housed along with purusa. 2. **SHIKHARA / VIMANAM** - Tower above the garbhagriha; Pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple which represents Meru. - **Northern Style** - Nagara - **AMALAKA** on top of the shikara; A segmented or notched stone disk, usually with ridges on the rim, cushion type or flattened fluted melon - **KALASHA** - ornament on amalaka - **Southern Style** - Dravida - **Central Style** - Vesara 3. **VIMANA** - The entire building housing the garbhagriha (sanctuary + tower) 4. **PRADAKSHINA PATHA** - Ambulatory passageway for circumambulation; can be enclosed passage or open courtyard; start / end point is the Dwajasthambam (flag post); Done only after completing prayer and puja ritual in the main shrine; The number of Pradakshina depends on the wish of the devotees, it must be in odd numbers - 3, 9 and 11 5. **GOPURAM** - entrance gates; Monumental and ornate tower at the entrance of the temple complex, specially found in south India/Dravidian Style Temples. 6. **MANDAPA** - main temple hall - School - Hospital - Courts for the community - Place for the recitation and listening of folktales 7. **ANTARALA** - vestibule or the intermediate chamber. It unites the main sanctuary and the pillared hall of the temple. 8. **ARDHA MANDAPA** - front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to the mandapa. 9. **NATA-MANDIRA** - temple hall of dancing, where in olden days ritual of music and dance was performed 10. **PITHA** - the plinth or the platform of the temple. 11. **WATER RESERVOIR / TEMPLE TANKS** - Water is used for rituals and also to keep the temple floor clean or even for a ritual bath before entering the holy area. 12. **Walkways** - Vertically represents the god's body with the sikhara as the head and the garbhagriha as the neck, mandapa as the body and gopuram as the feet. ### DRAVIDIAN (SOUTH STYLE) EXAMPLES: - Main temple (garbhagriha) has one of the smallest towers (because it is the oldest part of the temple) - Shape of the main temple tower is like a geometric stepped pyramid - Dvarapalas (door-keepers / guards) adorn the entrance to garbhagriha - Seven kingdoms and empires stamped their influence on architecture during different times: 1. **PALLAVA** - Ruled from 600-900 AD - Greatest works are the single rock temples in Mahabalipuram and their capital Kanchipuram located in Tamilnadu. - Pioneers of south Indian architecture.. 2. **CHOLA** - Ruled from 900-1150 AD - Reached apex of South Indian Architecture. - **BRIHADISHIWARA Temple Thanjavur, India; Built by the Chola king Rajaraja I in the 11th c.; World's 1st complete granite temple; Tower is 66 m. (one of the tallest temples in the world)** - **AIRAVATESVARA Temple - Darasuram; Dedicated to Lord Shiva, took more than 25 years to build by Rajaraja Chola II in the 12th c; Smaller than Brihadishwara Temple.** - **Siva temple of Thaniavur - largest and tallest** - **Gangaikondacholapuram - one of the two great temples; Remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.** 3. **BADAMI CHALUKYAS** - Ruled from 543-753 A.D. - Rock-cut temples of Pattadakal a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami and Aihole- most celebrated monuments. - Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are attributed to them - beginning of Chalukya style of architecture and a consolidation of South Indian style. 4. **RASHTRAKUTA** - Ruled the Deccan in the period 753-973 AD. - Rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present day Maharashtra; 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive is the Kailasa temple at Ellora (most complete example of the Dravidian Style) 5. **WESTERN CHALUKYA** - Ruled from 973-1180 AD. - Art of Western Chalukyas is called the "GADAG style" after the number of ornate temples. - Well known for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) - served as ritual bathing places, found in Lakkundi. Their stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire. - Over 50 temples exists - Kasi Vishveshvara, Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna, Kuruvatii, Kalleshwara 6. **HOYSALA** - The finest examples of their architecture are the: - Chennakesava temple, Belur, Hoysaleswara temple, Halebidu and Kesava temple, Somanathapura. - The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnataka Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida and considered an independent architectural tradition with many unique features. 7. **VIJAYANAGAR** - Ruled from 1343-1565 AD - Combination of the styles developed in South India in the previous centuries. - Yali columns (pillar with charging horse), balustrades (parapets) and ornate pillared mandapa are their unique contribution. - Ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower). - Used of hard granite - durable since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. - Vijayanagara open air theatre of monuments - UNESCO WHS #### NAGARA STYLE TEMPLE Examples: 1. Temples at Khajuraho 2. **Visvanatha Temple** - Madhya Pradesh, India; Part of Khajuraho group of monuments (UNESCO WHS); Enshrines a Shiva Linga; A panchayatana complex 3. **Khandariya Mahadev & Jagadambi Temple** - Largest monument of Khajuraho; Built between 1017 AD. – 1029 AD. in the reign of Vidyadhara Chandela; Series of graded and ascending 84 shikharas.; Sculptured friezes of elephants, horses, hunters, dancers, musicians in the basement erotic figures on its outer walls show the influence of Tantrism. 4. **Surya temple at Modhera exquisitely carved** 5. **Orissa -now Odissa; most outstanding examples of nagara architecture** - Region of Orissa is an important landmark in the temple building activity in India. - **Parasuramesvara temple at Bhubaneswar in Orissa - consisting only of a shrine and a hall** - Orissan builders tried to symbolize the human body in the composition of the vertical sections of the body. #### Parts of an Orissan Temple - (after the Lingaraja Temple at Bhuvaneswar) - The temple is made to look like a tabernacle of the Godhead. 1. **Bada**-foot, the lower portion of the human body. It is composed of horizontal mouldings ensuring stability of the structure. 2. **Gandi** - trunk, main body of the human being. The trunk is decorated with the motifs of miniature 3. **Mastaka** - apex which corresponds to the head portion of the human body. The crown is decorated by an amalaka. 4. **kapotas** - main rolled cornice of a building 5. **gavaksas** - circular or horseshoe arch #### VESARA - Combination of Nagara and Dravidian style of temple architecture styles - Originated in Karnataka - sanctum = square - vimana = circular / stellar plan - Dravidian influence: minimizing the height of each storey; arranging them in descending order of height from base to top; much ornamentation - Nagara influence: vertical tower (instead of inclined) - Two special features of Chalukya temples - **Mantapa** (mandapa) roof: - Domical ceilings (the dome is held up by four pillars); Square ceilings (vigorously ornamented with mythological pictures) - **Pillars:** the miniature decorative pillars supporting the shikhara #### STEPWELL - Stepwells (also vav or stepped ponds) like the one in Adalaj were once integral to the semi-arid regions of Gujarat, as they provided water for drinking, washing, and bathing. These wells were also venues for colorful festivals and sacred rituals. #### JAIN ART AND ARCHITECTURE - Offshoot of Hinduism and Buddhism - Moksha = enlightened state - Early main monuments are rock-cut architecture. Followed the Buddhist rock-cut style. - Reflective of their principles of austerity. - **Monoliths** - **Tirtha** - Temples; Pilgrimage sites for Jains and Hindus; (Sanskrit word for "a shallow part of a body of water that may be easily crossed") - **DERASAR, BASADI, MANDIR** - Other names for Jain Temples - Concept of `mountains of immortality' building of temple-cities on hills. - Militant aura around them, surrounded by embattled walls - Divided into wards similar to fortified cities with parapets and niches to repel armed aggression. - Considered richest temples in the world, surpassing even Mughal buildings in grandeur and material wealth. #### Two types of temples: 1. **SHIKAR-BANDHI** - Main temple with the dome. - **dome** - Marble pillars which are carved beautifully with Demi god posture. - **Gambhara** (Garbha Graha) – main part of the temple with a stone carved God idol - **GHAR JAIN temple** - home temple without dome 2. **EXAMPLES:** - Solanki temple style of Gujarat in Dilwara Temples, Mt. Abu - Ananthanatha Swami Temple, Puliyarmala, outside Kalpetta - Temples sometimes have a stupa (tope) - Hastinapur, Mathura etc. - Free standing pillars called vanity-subduing pillars - Jain Temple in Ranakpur, Rajsthan (late 14th and mid-15th c.) - Marble temple built on a hill. - Supported by over 1444 marble pillars, carved and no two pillars are the same. - Symbolize the Tirthankara's conquest of the four cardinal directions. - Dilwara Temples, Rajasthan (11th - 13th c. AD) - Located about 2½ kilometers from Mount Abu, Rajasthan's only hill station. - 5 marble temples of Dilwara are the sacred pilgrimage of the Jains - World famous for their use of marble - Kharatara Vsahi (Parshvanatha Temple) of different style ### MUGHAL EMPIRE In 1398, Mongol conqueror Tamerlane led his armies into India. - **BABUR**, a descendant of Tamerlane was emperor of the Muslim dominions for 4 years. He was also the founder of the great Mughal dynasty (16th-17th c.) - **AKBAR**, Babur's grandson, was the greatest Mughal sovereign (1556-1605). - **Reached its cultural peak under SHAH JAHAN, Akbar's grandson (1628-1658), It coincided with the golden age of Indian Saracenic architecture, best exemplified by the Taj Mahal.** - Mughal regime suffered in 1739 when the Persian king Nadir Shah led an army into India and plundered Delhi. The Empire regained its throne but was later defeated. - India fell under the British domination in #### IMPACT OF ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE ON INDIA: - Arabs, Turks, Afghans, and Mughals - Architectural styles, including the Persian and Byzantine style, Ottoman style, etc. - Art took place during the reign of Shah Jehan between 1628-1659 - Capitals of Agra, Delhi and Lahore - display great buildings and structures. - Use of white marble and the red sandstone. - Great Islamic gardens - Shalimar Garden in Lahore, one of the finest surviving ensembles ### EXAMPLES: 1. Humayun's Tomb, built in 1565-1572 (refer to UNESCO World Heritage Site description) - Built by the widow Hamida Banu Begum, for her deceased husband, nine years after his death. - 1st example of Mughal architecture in India and 1st garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent. - Use of red sandstone, Persian architecture which is inspired by several major architectural innovations, culminating in the construction of the Taj Mahal. 2. The Lahore Fort (Shahi Qila) complex, Pakistan, circa 1580 - Citadel complex started by Akbar - Located in the walled city of Lahore in Punjab, Pakistan - Lahore = Royal (in Punjab) - 21 notable monuments - Built almost entirely in the 17th century at the height of the Mughal empire 3. Old Delhi Red Fort - Seat of the Mughal Empire. - Huge, red sandstone walls, which