Social Science Lecture Handout: The Origin of Life and History Periods - PDF

SOCIAL SCIENCE LECTURE HANDOUT Compiled by: JONATHAN T. ESTOQUIA, LPT The Origin of Life 1. The religious story of creation. - From God‟s word (the Bible) 2. The scientific theory of evolution. - Based on man‟s wisdom – “On the Origin of Species”, (1859) PERIODS IN HISTORY I. Prehistoric Period - A period when there were no written records of man„s progress. Paleolithic or Old Stone Age (2.5M - 8000BC) palaios “old” and lithos “stone” Greatest achievement, discovery of fire Java Man, Peking Man, Neanderthal Man and Cro-Magnon Man existed. Neolithic or New Stone Age (8000BC - 3000BC) neos “new” and lithos “stone” Period started after the disappearance of the Cro-Magnon Man. Greatest achievement, making of dugouts (the world‟s first boats) Metal Age (4000BC – 1500BC) Copper was discovered near Mt. Sinai Tin was later discovered. By mixing copper and tin, bronze was produced. Iron was first used by the Hittites. II. Historic Period - Men‟s progress were recorded. The Invention of Writing Ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia invented in 3500 BC the earliest writing called cuneiform, cuneus “wedge” and forma “form”. Egyptians invented their own writing, hieroglyphics. The first alphabet was invented by the Phoenicians which consisted of 22 letters (all consonants). Later the Greeks improved it by adding the vowels. The Ancient World First Civilizations were in the river alleys: Mesopotamia – region between the Tigris and Euphrates River Egypt – a long the Nile River in Africa India – in the valley of Indus River Chinese – along the Huang He (“Yellow River”) and Yangtze rivers What is Civilization? Most scholars define civilization as a complex culture with these five characteristics: 1. Advanced cities 2. Specialized workers (traders, government officials, priests, artisans) 3. Complex institutions (government, religion, economy) 4. Record keeping (system of writing) 5. Advanced technology (new tools and techniques to solve problems) MESOPOTAMIA (3500 B.C. - 2000 B.C.) Mesopotamia means “land between two rivers”. The Cradle of Civilization. Birthplace of history and civilization. Refers to an area, rather than a country. Also called “fertile crescent”. Ruled by Sumeria, Akkadia, Babylon, Assyria and Persia. Mesopotamia‟s Contributions Invented cuneiform, the earliest form of writing. Invented the plow and the wheel. Art of irrigation. Cultivated the fertile land and tamed the floods of the twin rivers by constructing canals and dikes. Utilized the river waters to irrigate their farms. Wrote the world‟s earliest law codes: Ur Nammu Code and the Hammurabi Code. Hammurabi Code Written by the ruler, Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). The code lists 282 specific laws dealing with everything that affected the community, family relations, business conduct, and crime. It frequently applied the principle of retaliation (an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth) to punish crimes. Epic of Gilgamesh – a long poem of myths and legends written during the age of the Sumerians. It is one of the earliest works of literature in the world. The epic tells of Gilgamesh, a legendary king, who was unsuccessful in his quest for immortality, a theme that recurs in ancient literature. Sexagesimal system in Mathematics – counting by 60s. Under this system, a minute has 60 seconds, an hour has 60 minutes, and a circle has six 60s (360°) Architecture: Ziggurat (an ancient Babylonian skyscraper-temple) and the Hanging Gardens. ANCIENT EGYPT (3200 B.C. – 600 B.C.) The Nile River, the longest river in the world, gives abundant water for irrigation, and its flood makes the soil fertile. First discovered by a woman, Egyptus, who was a daughter of Ham (son of Noah). Pharaoh, the eldest son of Egyptus became the first ruler of Egypt. Society in ancient Egypt was divided into 4 social classes: (1) nobles and priests, (2) soldiers, (3) commoners, and (4) slaves. The ancient Egyptian writing was called hieroglyphics. It means “sacred signs” because it was written by the priests. The Rosetta Stone In 1799, near the village of Rosetta, French scholars found a polished black stone inscribed with a message in three languages (pure hieroglyphics, simple hieroglyphics, and Greek). In 1822, a French scholar - Jean Francois Champollion, finally broke the code of the hieroglyphics. ANCIENT EGYPT‟S Contributions Literature: Pyramid Texts, The Book of the dead Architecture: Pyramid, the oldest man-made stone monument. Devised the first 365 day calendar, which divided the year into 12 months of 30 days each. World‟s first builders. Erected magnificent palaces, obelisks and temples. Sculpture: The ancient Egyptians were skilled sculptors. Among their sculptures, Sphinx was the most famous. First to develop geometry. They utilized their mathematical and geometrical knowledge in building the Pyramids. Invented cement Increased man‟s knowledge of medicine, surgery and mummification (embalming). The people of Egypt believed that after death, the soul returns back to the body. So they preserved the dead body of the Pharaoh by applying chemicals in it. ANCIENT INDIA (2500 B.C. – 1500 B.C.) Dravidians, dark-complexioned people, first inhabited the Indus Valley. They were conquered by the Aryans (Indo-Europeans), in about 1500 BC, and later called themselves Hindus. Developed the varnas (caste system), a rigid social structure which was a part of Hinduism: 1. Brahmins – priests 2. Kshatriyas – rulers and warriors 3. Vaishyas – peasants and traders 4. Shudras – laborers Those who were impure because of their work (butchers, gravediggers, collectors of trash) lived outside the caste structure. They were known as “untouchables”, since even their touch is not pure. In the 20th century, Mahatma Gandhi called the untouchables harijans, or “children of God”. The 1955 Untouchability Act of India provided penalties for discrimination. However, 3,000-year-old traditions do not die easily. Most former untouchables today still suffer from extreme poverty and caste discrimination. Siddhartha Gautama (563 - 483 BC), a Hindu prince, started a new religion. He did not like the Hindu beliefs on caste system which condemned a man to a certain class for life. Later he was known as the Buddha, meaning “the enlightened one”. At the beginning of first century AD, Buddhism spread to foreign countries: Tibet, China, Korea, Japan, Burma, Thailand and other South-east Asian nations. ANCIENT INDIA‟S Contributions India gave the world 4 religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. Invented “yoga”, a Hindu philosophy that teaches a person to experience inner peace by controlling the body and mind. Architecture: Taj Mahal City Planning: sophisticated, laid out their cities on a precise grid system. LITERATURE: 1. Panchatantara (first fable) 2. The Clay Cart and Sakuntala (the first dramatic epics) 3. Mahabharata (longest epic with 100,000 couplets, 106,000 verses and 7x longer than the Greek Iliad and Odyssey combined) 4. The Bhagavad Gita (world’s greatest philosophical poem) ANCIENT CHINA (2000 B.C. – 400 B.C.) Fossil remains show that ancestors of modern humans lived in about 1.7 million years ago in northern China near Beijing, known as the Peking Man. The earliest settlement began in 2000 BC when the first Chinese dynasty (Xia) was founded by an engineer and mathematician named Yu. There were no written records from this period, hence actual events of this time are unknown. About the time earlier civilizations (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley) fell to outside invaders, a people called Shang rose to power in northern China. The Shang Dynasty (1532 – 1027 B.C.) became the first family of Chinese rulers to leave written records. Their culture had strong bonds that made for unity. Above all, people‟s lives were governed by their duties to two important authorities – their family and their emperor. Philosophy and the Social Order China‟s ancient values of social order, harmony, and respect for authority were put aside after the end of the Shang Dynasty. To restore these values, Chinese scholars and philosophers developed different solutions. Chinese philosophers: Confucius, Lao Tzu and Mencius. Confucius (551 – 479 BC) wrote the Analects which are short and witty sayings that treat moral values and good human relations. Lao Tzu (604 – 517 BC) founded a new religion, Taoism. His favorite saying: “He who overcomes others is strong, but he who overcomes himself is stronger.” Mencius (372 – 289 BC), the greatest pupil of Confucius. He taught that, “He who gains the hearts of the people gains the throne, and he who loses the people‟s hearts loses the throne.” ANCIENT CHINA‟S Contributions Gunpowder, paper, printing, and the compass are sometimes called the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China Introduced Sericulture (silk industry) and the use of silk clothes which revolutionized clothing Printed the first paper money “flying money”; the oldest known book “Diamond Sutra”; oldest newspaper in the world “Peking Gazette” Introduced the Civil Service Examination Great Wall of China Great Philosophers: Confucius, Lao Tzu and Mencius Invented the Abacus, a calculator that used sliding beads to help compute math problems quickly OTHER ANCIENT NATIONS OF ASIA Hittites. The first nation to use iron. Phoenicians. The greatest sailors and maritime traders of ancient times. Their greatest contribution was the invention of the alphabet. Jews. The first people in history to believe in only one God, Monotheism. They wrote the Bible, the holy book of both Judaism and Christianity. Persians. Wrote the first human rights charter. WESTERN WORLD Ancient Greece The ancestors of the Greeks were the Indo-Europeans from the valley of Danube The 4 main Greek tribes: 1. Achaeans 2. Ionians - Athenians 3. Dorians - Spartans 4. Aetolians They believed that they descended from a common mythological ancestor, Hellen. Hence they called themselves “Hellenes”, their country “Hellas” and their civilization “Hellenic”. The main focus of ancient Greek life was the city-state called polis which means “city”, a political and social unit. Each city-state included the city proper and the surrounding farms. The main plaza and marketplace of a city-state is the agora, their main business and political center. Invented direct democracy (state ruled by citizens, majority rule decides vote) Forms of government in a city-state: 1. Monarchy Tyranny 2. Aristocracy Oligarchy 3. Direct Democracy Mobocracy SPARTA Dictatorial form of government, led by a king. 3 classes of Spartan society: Spartans – citizens and warriors Perioeci – free-men engaged in trade and industry Helots – slaves who worked in farms or house servants A military state. All able-bodied men were obliged to acquire training in arms and fight for their city-state. All male babies examined by government and only those who were healthy were allowed to live. Sickly babies were hurled down in the mountains to die. Life of a male Spartan: 7yrs old – live in military barracks 20yrs old – become full citizens with the right to vote 30yrs old – obliged to marry. Married men enjoyed little family life for they must eat and sleep at the barracks until they reach 60yrs old. ATHENS Named after the goddess Athena. Largest Greek city-state. Began the democratic form of government. “Our constitution is called democracy because power is in the hands not of a minority but of the whole people.” (Pericles, Athenian statesman) Athenians were freedom loving and cultured. They were fond of the arts, music, literature, philosophy, public speaking and debate. Athenian maxim: “A sound mind in a sound body” Greek - Persian Wars 490 BC - Darius of Persia declared war on Athens. The Athenians led by Miltiades, routed the Persian invaders in the Battle of Marathon. 480 BC - Xerxes of Persia invaded Greece. 300 Spartan warriors led by King Leonidas defended the narrow pass of Thermopylae and died fighting unto the last. 479 BC - The Greeks defeated the Persians in the Battle of Plataea and finally rid themselves from Persian invaders. ANCIENT GREECE Contributions Mythology about gods and goddesses. Ancient Greeks believed in numerous gods and goddesses and that they lived on Mt. Olympus. Classical Architecture. 3 architectural styles perfected by Greece: (1) Ionian, (2) Doric, (3) Corinthian. Finest example of Greek architecture is the Parthenon, a magnificent marble temple on the Acropolis in Athens. Poetry. The Iliad and the Odyssey by the blind poet Homer, were the earliest specimens of Greek poetry. Drama. The drama, as a literary art, developed in ancient Hellas. First it was just dancing of the chorus. Later, the dialogue was added. Thus, the drama was born. First Greek dramatist, Aeschylus, also known as the “Father of the Greek Tragedy”. Greece developed another type of drama called “comedy”. A farce in which the actors ridicule the leaders of the day with wit and humor. Greatest Greek comedian was Aristophanes. Olympic Games The Greeks believed that athletic competitions were a way to please the gods and honor dead heroes. Dedicated to the god Zeus, the Olympics began in 776 B.C. They even suspended wars between city-states so that athletes could compete. It is held every four years. Earliest games: foot races, wrestling, boxing, jumping, javelin-and-discus- throwing events. Victorious Olympians received a crown made of wild olive leaves. Symbol – Olympic rings, consists of five intertwined rings and represents the unity of the five inhabited continents (Africa, America, Asia, Australia and Europe) Motto - Citius, Altius, Fortius, a Latin expression meaning "Faster, Higher, Stronger" History. Herodutos “Father of History”. His masterpiece was The History of the Persian Wars. Oratory. Oratory attained perfection in Greece. The first teacher of oratory was Corax who made a living by teaching public speaking to other men. Demosthenes “Prince of Greek Orators” Medicine. Hippocrates “Father of Medicine”. Hippocrates is considered to be the father of medicine because in his books, which are more than 70, he described in a scientific manner, many diseases and their treatment after detailed observation. Mathematics. Euclid, a highly regarded mathematician who opened a school of geometry in Alexandria. The Elements, his best-known book, contained 465 carefully presented geometry propositions and proofs. Archimedes accurately estimated the value of pi ( ) – the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. Sculpture. Sculpture flourished during the Hellenistic age. Rulers, wealthy merchants, and cities all purchased statues to honor the gods, commemorate heroes, and portray ordinary people in everyday situations. The largest known Hellenistic statue was the Colossus of Rhodes, a bronze statue that stood more than 100 feet high. Philosophy (“love of wisdom”). Thales “Father of Greek Philosophy”. Founded the first Greek school of philosophy. Taught that the universe originated from water. Greek Philosophers Socrates Wisest man in Athens. Master of the Socratic dialectic, reasoning by questions and answers. Plato Student of Socrates. His masterpiece was The Republic, which portrays an ideal state. Aristotle Student of Plato. Tutor of Alexander the Great. Phytagoras Popularized the number doctrine; some numbers are lucky like 3, 5 and 7. Developed the Phytagorean Theorem. Protagoras Taught that “man is the measure of all things” Government. Direct democracy - citizens rule by majority vote. Science and Technology. Accurate estimate of circumference of earth by Erastosthenes (Father of Geography) Development of simple machines: lever, pulley and pump. ROME Indo-European tribes were the early settlers of Rome. The Etruscans (from ancient Italy) were the earliest rulers of Rome who conquered it on 600 BC. In 509 BC, the Romans fought with the Etruscans and drove them away. They then established a republic which lasted 500 years. Roman republic: aristocratic form of government. Senate was controlled by “patricians” (upper class). Poor people called “plebeians” (lower class). 12 Tables of Laws - Set of laws inscribed on 12 bronze tablets created in ancient Rome. They were the beginning of a new approach to laws where they would be passed by government and written down so that all citizens might be treated equally before them. It was a first step which would allow the protection of the rights of all citizens. The Triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus and Julius Caesar. Caesar became the most successful member of the Triumvirate and expanded Rome‟s territory. “Veni, vidi, vici” (I came, I saw, I conquered), his famous message to the Roman Senate after he conquered Egypt. Had a romance with Queen Cleopatra, “Serpent of the Nile” Caesar was assassinated by his two friends, Brutus and Cassius, inside the Senate. Second Triumvirate: Mark Anthony (experienced general), Lepidus (powerful politician), Octavian (Caesar‟s grand-nephew). The Second Triumvirate ended in jealousy and violence. In the Battle of Actium on 31 BC, Octavian defeated the combined forces of Anthony and Cleopatra which ended the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. Later, Anthony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Octavian (Augustus Caesar) became the first emperor of the Roman Empire on 27 BC. Corrupt emperors (37 – 96 AD) Tiberius – left Rome for a haven of debauchery in Capri, Italy Caligula – mentally disturbed; had his horse elected consul Nero – vicious; murdered many and persecuted the Christians Good Emperors (96 – 180 AD) Trajan – enlarged social welfare Hadrian – reorganized the bureucracy Antoninus Pius – reign largely a period of peace and prosperity Marcus Aurelius – brought Rome to height of economic prosperity Rome‟s Grandeur. Pax Romana (Roman Peace), period of the Good Emperors in which the people enjoyed: economic prosperity, good government and good social life. Diocletian, “the last great Roman Emperor”. He divided the empire into two, east (Byzantium-Istanbul) and west. East Empire was led by Constantine, founder of the Byzantine Empire. West Empire was led by Romulus Augustus “little Augustus” (last emperor of Rome) West Rome‟s downfall ushered in the “Dark Ages” ROMAN CONTRIBUTIONS Jurisprudence – the study of law, the basis of legal systems of modern nations. Latin, the language of the Middle Ages which influenced modern languages. The Colosseum, the predecessor of the modern gymnasium. The Republican form of government, in which the citizens vote for their representatives to governing bodies. II. MEDIEVAL PERIOD Dark Ages – barbaric tribes, the Goths, the Vandals and the Huns dominated. Triumph of Christianity – Constantine united Christianity and state. He called for the Council of Nicea, a great ecumenical council in 325 AD. Feudalism – socio political economic system in Europe, a manorial system; period of chivalry and knighthood. Crusades – military expeditions by Christians against Muslims to take back Holy Land. III. MODERN PERIOD The Renaissance (14th – 16th century) - Means “rebirth”, “reawakening” or “revival” of learning. Italy was located halfway between the Middle East and Western Europe. This geographical position gave Italian city-states the opportunity to become rich, enabling them to patronize arts and letters. Famous poets Elizabeth Barrett Browning – How Do I Love Thee? Lewis Carroll – Jabberwocky Robert Frost – The Road Not Taken William Shakespeare – Seven Ages Of Man Edgar Allan Poe – The Bells Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – Excelsior Famous Novels Wuthering Heights – Emily Brontë Middlemarch – George Eliot The Hunchback of Notre-Dame – Victor Hugo The Lord of the Rings – John Ronald Reuel Tolkien Nineteen Eighty-Four – George Orwell Great Expectations – Charles Dickens Moby Dick – Herman Melville Robinson Crusoe – Daniel Defoe FAMOUS WRITERS IN THE PHILIPPINES Nick Joaquin – “The Summer Solstice (Tatarin)” Jose Rizal – Noli Me Tangere Rustica C. Carpio – Talinhaga, Hinaing at Pag-ibig ng Isang Makata Lualhati Bautista – Dekada „70, Bata, Bata, Pa‟no Ka Ginawa? Francisco Balagtas – “Father of the Tagalog Poem”; Florante at Laura Lope K. Santos – Banaag at Sikat Manuel Arguilla – “How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife” FAMOUS MUSIC COMPOSERS George Frideric Handel (1685 – 1759) Johann Sebastian Bach (1685 – 1750) Joseph Haydn (1732 – 1809) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 – 1791) Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 – 1827) FAMOUS PHILIPPINE MUSICIANS Cecile Licad – World Class classical pianist Armando Salarza – titular organist of the Bamboo Organ of Las Piñas City Nicanor Abelardo – Father of Philippine Sonata, composer of Kundiman songs; “Bituing Marikit” Ryan Cayabyab – composer, the Maestro of Philippine music Levi Celerio – lyricist, “leaf player”; “Sa Ugoy ng Duyan” George Canseco – composer of the song: “Ako ay Pilipino” Julian Felipe – Father of Philippine National Anthem Lito Molina – Father of Philippine Jazz PAINTING Mediums of Painting  Pigment – part of the paint which supplies the color, a fine powder ground from some clay, stone, or mineral extracted from plants or trees.  Tempera – earth or mineral pigments mixed with egg yolk and egg white. Since the paint dries quickly, corrections are difficult to make.  Oil – the pigment is mixed with linseed oil applied to primed canvas. It is flexible. Oil paints are slow to dry and the painting can be changed and worked over a long period of time. FAMOUS PAINTERS Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 – 1519) Michelangelo (1475 – 1564) Raphael (1483 – 1520) Rembrandt (1606 – 1669) Claude Monet (1840 – 1926) Vincent Van Gogh (1853 – 1890) Pablo Picasso (1881 – 1973) Juan N. Luna (1857 - 1899) Fernando Amorsolo (1892 - 1972) Carlos “Botong” Francisco (1912 - 1969) SCULPTURE FAMOUS SCULPTORS Donatello (1386 - 1466) Michelangelo (1475 – 1564) Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598 - 1680) Auguste Rodin (1840 - 1917) Guillermo Tolentino (1890 – 1976) Napoleon Abueva (1930 – present) - “Father of Modern Philippine Sculpture” Abdulmari Imao (1936 – 2014) Eduardo Castrillo (1942 – 2016) Ramon Orlina (1944 – present) REFORMATION The Reformation, also referred to as the Protestant Reformation and the European Reformation, was a schism from the Roman Catholic Church initiated by Martin Luther, and continued by John Calvin, Ulrich Zwingli, and other early Protestant Reformers in 16th century Europe. Martin Luther (Germany) A law student but abandoned his legal training to enter the monastery of the Augustinian Order. Seemed to have been tormented by the wide discrepancy between the doctrines and teachings of the scriptures and the practices of Catholicism. His intensive study of the Bible led him to the doctrinal position that later came to mark the reform movement. Luther‟s direct opposition to the Church in Rome was the sale of indulgences by the agents of Pope Leo X. These indulgences were offered to repay Albert of Mainz his cost in acquiring the archbishopric of Mainz and to continue work on St. Peter‟s unfinished Basilica. Purchase of these indulgences will grant the individual: remission of sins and punishment in purgatory and complete remission of all sins for the dead. 31 Oct 1517, Luther nailed to the church door at Wittenberg his Ninety-five Theses, which challenged the church to debate on the efficacy of indulgences and the church‟s sacramental practices. His resistance led to his excommunication from the church and was banned in the empire, which made him an outlaw. He was protected by German royals who wanted more political autonomy from Rome. When it was evident the Catholic church would not reform, Luther‟s followers founded the Lutheran church. HISTORY OF HUMAN RIGHTS Human Rights Human Rights are the basic rights of a person, simply because he or she is a human being. Human Rights are those basic standards without which people cannot live in dignity. To violate someone‟s human rights is to treat that person as though he or she is not a human being. Characteristics of Human Rights Human rights are inherent to each individual Human rights are universal – because they apply to everyone in the world Human rights are inalienable – they cannot be taken away To live in dignity, all human beings are entitled to freedom, security and decent standards of living concurrently – human rights are indivisible and interdependent. Each one contributes to the realization of a person‟s human dignity through the satisfaction of his or her developmental, physical, psychological and spiritual needs. Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon in 539 BC He declared that “slaves are free and that they have the freedom to choose their religion.” His words were documented in clay known as “the Cyrus Cylinder” Ancient Rome - Romans noticed that people naturally followed certain laws even if they weren't told to. They call this, the Natural Law. 1215 AD Magna Carta “Great Charter” (England) - They finally let a king (King John) to agree that no one can overrule the rights of the people…not even a king. People were now safe from those in power. 1776 U.S. Declaration of Independence - “All men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” (4 July 1776) 1789 Rights of Man and of the children (France, 1789) - France insisted that these rights are not made up…they are NATURAL. (26 August 1789) Mahatma Gandhi (India) - led India Protests in 1915 against the British Government. In the face of violence, he insisted that all of the earth have rights…not just in Europe. United Nations established (24 October 1945) Eleanor Roosevelt, Chair UN HR Commission “First Lady of the World” Nations agreed on a set of rights that apply absolutely to everyone: “Universal Declaration of Human Rights”, partly in response to the atrocities of World War II. (Adopted 1948) UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS Article 1 Right to Equality Article 2 Freedom from Discrimination Article 3 Right to Life, Liberty, Personal Security Article 4 Freedom from Slavery Article 5 Freedom from Torture and Degrading Treatment Article 6 Right to Recognition as a Person before the Law Article 7 Right to Equality before the Law Article 8 Right to Remedy by Competent Tribunal Article 9 Freedom from Arbitrary Arrest and Exile Article 10 Right to Fair Public Hearing Article 11 Right to be Considered Innocent until Proven Guilty Article 12 Freedom from Interference with Privacy, Family, Home and Correspondence Article 13 Right to Free Movement in and out of the Country Article 14 Right to Asylum in other Countries from Persecution Article 15 Right to a Nationality and the Freedom to Change It Article 16 Right to Marriage and Family Article 17 Right to Own Property Article 18 Freedom of Belief and Religion Article 19 Freedom of Opinion and Information Article 20 Right of Peaceful Assembly and Association Article 21 Right to Participate in Government and in Free Elections Article 22 Right to Social Security Article 23 Right to Desirable Work and to Join Trade Unions Article 24 Right to Rest and Leisure Article 25 Right to Adequate Living Standard Article 26 Right to Education Article 27 Right to Participate in the Cultural Life of Community Article 28 Right to a Social Order that Articulates this Document Article 29 Community Duties Essential to Free and Full Development Article 30 Freedom from State or Personal Interference in the above Rights WORLD WARS World War I (1914-1918) Underlying causes: (1) Nationalism – the desire to be a free nation degenerated to jingoism or chauvinism, such bigoted kind of nationalism existed in many European countries. German jingoists considered themselves “superior race” hence; they aspired to dominate the world. (2) Imperialism – the policy of extending national power by acquiring colonies and economic advantages. Rivalry among European powers for colonies and trade produced tensions between nations. (3) Militarism – a powerful army and a great navy are required to support nationalism and imperialism. The European arms race produced pressure. England had long been the “Mistress of the Sea”, but Germany challenged it by building a strong fleet. England accepted the German challenge by constructing more warships, and so the naval race was on. (4) Rival Alliances – competition between nations led to the formation of two rival alliances - Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria & Italy; Triple Entente (1907): Britain, France & Russia. These rival alliances divided Europe into two hostile armed groups. Any war between them would involve the whole world, for both alliances had friends among other nations of the world. Assassination of the Austrian Archduke – Francis Ferdinand, heir to Austria‟s throne was assassinated on June 18, 1914 by a Serbian patriot, Gavrilo Princip. Austria rejected Serbia‟s offer for a peaceful settlement, and promptly declared war to Serbia on July 18, 1914. Allies versus Central Powers Allies (France, Russia, Britain, Serbia) Central Powers (Austria, Hungary, Germany, Turkey, Bulgaria) War ended, with the Allies winning, on November 11, 1918. In accordance with this armistice, all hostilities ceased at 11 am of the same day – “the eleventh hour on the eleventh day of the eleventh month of the year”. League of Nations The League was established in Geneva, Switzerland on January 10, 1920 with 62 member states. Its aims: (1) prevent war, (2) protect member countries against aggression, (3) arbitrate all disputes between nations, (4) promote international cooperation, & (5) implement the provisions of the peace treaties ending World War I. World War II (1939-1945) Underlying causes: Clash between two rival political ideologies – democracy & totalitarianism. The unchecked aggressions of Germany, Italy & Japan. The foolish dream of Hitler and Mussolini to be masters of the world. Failure of the League of Nations to settle international crisis. The outbreak of war started when Nazi Germany attacked Poland in the summer of 1939. Countries in Europe were rampaged by Germany. USA entered war when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, America‟s base in Hawaii, on December 7, 1941. Japan then conquered the Philippines, which was under the American Commonwealth Government. War ended in the Pacific after US forces dropped atomic bombs in Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945). PHILIPPINE HISTORY Historical names of the Philippines Ma-i (“country of the Blacks”) - historians claimed that Ma-i was not an island, but all the south of South Sea islands groups and Manila itself, which was known to be an overseas Chinese settlement, Mindoro being the center, which was in constant contact with the Chinese mainland as early as the 9th century AD. Las Islas de San Lazaru (St. Lazaru‟s Islands) - Named by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 when he reached the islands of Homonhon in Samar (now Eastern Samar) on the feast day of Saint Lazarus of Bethany. Islas del Poniente (Islands of the West). Las Islas Felipinas (Philippine Islands/Islands belonging to Philip). Named by Ruy López de Villalobos in 1543 to Samar and Leyte, honoring the Prince of Asturias, the then Philip II of Spain. Filipinas (Philippines). Vernacular corruption of Las islas Felipinas; irrevocably became the archipelago's name. Theories on the origin of ancient Filipinos H. Otley Beyer (Wave Migration Theory) – the ancestors of the Filipinos came to the islands first via land bridges which would occur during times when the sea level was low, and then later in seagoing vessels such as the balangay. F. Landa Jocano - theorizes that the ancestors of the Filipinos evolved locally. Wilhelm Solheim (Island Origin Theory) - postulates that the peopling of the archipelago transpired via trade networks originating in the Sundaland area around 48,000 to 5000 BC rather than by wide-scale migration. Prehistory Callao Man – the earliest, 67,000 year-old, known human remains in the Philippines discovered in 2007 in the Callao Caves in Cagayan. The find consisted of a single 61 mm metatarsal which believed to be from the remains of Homo sapiens. Tabon Man – 22,000 year-old fossilized fragments of a skull and jawbone of three individuals found in Palawan. Recent excavations in the Kalinga province of northern Luzon uncovered 57 stone tools and more than 400 bones of animals. The biggest find was a 75% complete skeleton of a rhinoceros that was clearly butchered, with 13 of its bones displaying cut marks and areas where bone was struck. All of the remains were dated to 709,000 years ago using electron-spin resonance methods, which can date material in a way that radiocarbon dating can't. By about 30,000 BC, the Negritos were early settlers, but their appearance in the Philippines has not been reliably dated. They were followed by the Indonesians and Malays, who began to arrive in successive waves beginning about 4000 BC. By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago had developed into four distinct kinds of peoples: (1) tribal groups, such as the Aetas, Hanunoo, Ilongots and the Mangyan who depended on hunter-gathering and were concentrated in forests; (2) warrior societies, such as the Isneg and Kalinga who practiced social ranking and ritualized warfare and roamed the plains; (3) petty plutocracy of the Ifugao Cordillera Highlanders, who occupied the mountain ranges of Luzon; (4) harbor principalities of the estuarine civilizations that grew along rivers and seashores while participating in trans-island maritime trade. The archipelago was divided into barangays, each barangay comprising of 40 - 100 families. Contacts with other nations such as Chinese, Indians and Malays existed. Arab influence Islam religion was brought by Malays. PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD Kingdom of Tondo - led by kings under the title “Lakan” which belongs to the caste of the Maharlika. They were called Hidalgos by the Spaniards. Wangdom of Pangasinan - a sovereign Prehispanic Philippine state, notable for having traded with the Kingdom of Ryukyu, Japan. It was locally known the Luyag na Kaboloan which existed in the fertile Agno River valley. The Kedatuan of Madja-as - several exiled datus led by Datu Puti led a mass migration to the central islands of the Philippines, fleeing from Rajah Makatunao of the island of Borneo. Upon reaching the island of Panay and purchasing the island from a Negrito chieftain Marikudo, they established a confederation of states and named it the Kedatuan of Madja-as centered in Aklan. The Rajahnate of Cebu - The Rajahnate of Cebu was founded by Sri Lumay otherwise known as Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince of the Hindu Chola dynasty. He was sent by the maharajah to establish a base for expeditionary forces to subdue the local kingdoms but he rebelled and established his own independent Rajahnate instead. The Rajahnate of Butuan – founded by Rajah Sri Bata Shaja. Evidence of the existence of this rajahnate is given by the Butuan Silver Paleograph. The Sultanate of Sulu - In 1380, Makhdum Karim, an Arab trader born in Johor (Malaysia), arrived in Sulu from Malacca and established the Sultanate of Sulu. This sultanate eventually gained great wealth due to its diving for fine pearls. Sheik Karim al Makhdum Mosque Located in Barangay Tubig Indangan, Simunul, Tawi-Tawi, Philippines. It is the oldest mosque in the Philippines and was built by an Arab trader, Sheikh Makhdum Karim in 1380. Declared a National Cultural Treasure and was visited by the late President Ferdinand Marcos himself in 1965 to install a historic marker on it‟s wall. The Sultanate of Maguindanao - The Sultanate of Maguindanao rose to prominence at the end of the 15th century, Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johor introduced Islam in the island of Mindanao and he subsequently married Paramisuli, an Iranun Princess from Mindanao, and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao. The Sultanate of Lanao - The Sultanates of Lanao were founded in the 16th century through the influence of Shariff Kabungsuwan, who was enthroned as first Sultan of Maguindanao in 1520. RULERS Rajah – translated means “king”. A Rajah is a king, or princely ruler from Kshatriya/Rajput lineages. The title has a long history in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, being attested from Rigveda. Sultan – an Islamic title, with several historical meanings. Originally it was an Arabic language abstract noun meaning “strength”, “authority”, or “rulership”. Viceroy – a royal official who governs a country or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix “vice” meaning “in the place of” and French “roi” meaning “king”. Tribal Chief – leader of a tribe, or the head of a tribal form of self-government. SPANISH EXPEDITIONS AND COLONIZATION The earliest documented European expedition to the Philippines was that led by Ferdinand Magellan, in the service of the king of Spain. The expedition first sighted the mountains of Samar at dawn on the 16th March 1521, making landfall the following day at the small, uninhabited island of Homonhon at the mouth of the Leyte Gulf. On Easter Sunday, 31 March 1521, at Limasawa Island, Southern Leyte, Magellan solemnly planted a cross on the summit of a hill overlooking the sea and claimed for the king of Spain possession of the islands he had seen, naming them Las Islas de San Lazaru. The first single voyage of global circumnavigation was that of the ship ”Victoria”, between 1519 and 1522, known as the Magellan–Elcano expedition. It was a Castilian (Spanish) voyage of discovery, led initially by Ferdinand Magellan, and then by the Juan Sebastián Elcano. The voyage started in Seville, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, and after several stopovers rounded the southern tip of South America where the expedition discovered the Strait of Magellan, named after the fleet's captain. It then continued across the Pacific discovering a number of islands on its way, including Guam before arriving in the Philippines. The death of Ferdinand Magellan Magellan conquered and sought alliances among the natives beginning with Datu Zula, (Sugbu), and took special pride in converting them to Catholicism. Magellan's expedition got involved in the political rivalries between the Cebuano natives and took part in a battle against Lapu-lapu, (Mactan) and a mortal enemy of Datu Zula. At dawn on 27 April 1521, Magellan invaded Mactan Island with 60 armed men and 1,000 Cebuano warriors, but had great difficulty landing his men on the rocky shore. Lapu-Lapu had an army of 1,500 on land. Magellan waded ashore with his soldiers and attacked the Mactan defenders, ordering Datu Zula and his warriors to remain aboard the ships and watch. Magellan seriously underestimated Lapu-Lapu and his men, and grossly outnumbered, Magellan and 14 of his soldiers were killed. (April 27, 1521) After Magellan's death, Elcano took command of the expedition and continued the journey across the Indian Ocean, round the Cape of Good Hope, north along the Atlantic Ocean, and back to Spain in 1522. Elcano and a small group of 18 men were actually the only members of the expedition to make the full circumnavigation. OTHER SPANISH EXPEDITIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES: Loaísa Expedition (1525) - Garcia Jofre de Loaísa Cabot Expedition (1526) - Sebastian Cabot Saavedra Expedition (1527) - Alvaro de Saavedra Villalobos Expedition (1542) - Ruy López de Villalobos. Reached Mindanaw in Februay 1543. He named the islands of Samar and Leyte Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Prince Phillip II of Spain. Legazpi Expedition (1565) - Miguel López de Legazpi European colonization began in earnest when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived in 13 February 1565 and formed the first European settlements in Cebu. Beginning with just 5 ships and 500 men accompanied by 6 Augustinian missionaries, and further strengthened in 1567 by two hundred soldiers. He concluded blood compact with Sikatuna, chief of Bohol, then a treaty of friendship with Rajah Tupas of Cebu. Further colonization was made in Visayas and up north. In 1571, Legazpi established Manila as the capital of the Philippines. Why the Philippines was easily conquered? The natives lacked unity and a centralized form of government. Each barangay existed independently with one another, and the powers that each Datu enjoyed were confined only to his own barangay. No higher institution united the barangays, and the Spaniards took advantage of this situation. Spaniards used the barangays that were friendly to them in order to subdue the barangays that were not. Political changes Government was centralized. For 250 years, Philippines was administered through the Council of Indies which transmitted to the Governor General of the Philippines the royal decree that served as guide in the administration of the colony. Provincial governments started with encomiendas which were rewards given by the Spaniards who helped in the pacification of the country. Encomenderos were empowered to collect taxes, protect and convert natives to Catholicism. Due to abuses perpetrated by encomenderos, encomiendas were abolished and replaced by a system of provincial governments: 1. Provinces are called Alcaldia headed by Alcalde Mayor for pacified areas and Corregimentos headed by Corregidors for unpacified areas. 2. Cities are called Ayuntamiento headed by two Alcalde. 3. Towns are called Pueblos headed by a Gobernadorcillo. 4. Barangays were retained and headed by a Cabeza de Barangay. NOTABLE SPANISH GOVERNOR GENERALS OF THE PHILIPPINES Miguel Lopez de Legazpi - 1st governor general Narciso Clavería - responsible for the use of spanish surname by the Filipinos Jose Basco - implemented the Tobacco Monopoly Carlos Maria de la Torre - most loved governor general in the Philippines because of the reforms he implemented Eulogio Despujol - responsible for Rizal‟s exile in Dapitan Notable Spanish Governor Generals of the Philippines Ramón Blanco - gave Rizal (while in exile) permission to serve in Cuba as volunteer doctor to minister victims of yellow fever Camilo de Polavieja - approved the execution of Rizal Diego de los Rios - last Spanish governor general Rafael del Izquierdo – executed GOMBURZA British Occupation of Manila (1762 – 1764) The British occupation of Manila was an episode in Philippine colonial history when the British Empire occupied the Spanish colonial capital of Manila and the nearby principal port of Cavite for twenty months between 1762 and 1764. The British wanted to use Manila as an entrepôt for trade in the region, particularly with China. The British occupation ended as part of the peace settlement of the Seven Years' War. British Governor Generals (1762 – 1764) 1. Simón de Anda y Salazar (Oct 6, 1762 – Feb 10, 1764) 2. Dawsonne Drake (Nov 2, 1762 – May 31, 1764) Economic Policies (Spanish Occupation) Mostly characterized by monopoly that favored and benefited the Spaniards. Taxation - started as a tribute of 1 peso (Spanish reales). This was abolished in 1884 and personal cedula, a poll tax based on income, was instituted for residents 18 years of age and above. Taxes were excessive and most of which went into pockets of officials. Forced Labor - male from 16 to 66 years were required to render service to the government for 40 days supposedly with daily allowances and meager food ration. Galeon Trade or Manila-Acapulco Trade - Doctrine of Mercantilism (monopoly of goods from colonies) was imposed by Spain. Philippines traded with Acapulco, Mexico in the 16th century and goods were shipped by the Spanish galleons. Tobacco was in great demand in Europe. Tobacco Monopoly - The 1782 economic program of Spanish Governor General Jose V. Basco that lasted for 100 years. Tobacco production in the Philippines was under total control of the government. La Union, Ilocos, Abra, Cagayan Valley and Nueva Ecija became centers for planting, growing, harvesting and processing tobacco. As the tobacco monopoly fueled further unrest, Spain finally abolished it on 3 Dec 1882. Del Superior Govierno - first Philippine newspaper established in 1811 to 1832. It was primarily published and edited by the Spanish Governor General himself. The newspaper was printed in movable type and intended for local Spaniard readers. Doctrina Christiana – first published book in the Philippines (1593) Religious Influence Christian religion was introduced replacing the paganist anito worship. Friars were responsible for spreading the religion such as Franciscans, Jesuits (1851), Dominicans (1857) and Recollects (1606). Education was controlled by friars. Religious orders found the first school and colleges. University of Sto. Tomas was the first university founded in 1611. Growth of Filipino Nationalism Nationalism developed due to the following factors: 1. Opening the Philippines to world trade 2. Rise of the middle class 3. Racial prejudice 4. Cavite mutiny 5. Execution of Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora (GOMBURZA) Middle Class - Jose Rizal‟s Ancestry 7th child of Francisco Mercado Rizal and Teodora Alonzo Realonda. Born 19 June 1861 in Calamba, Laguna Rizal‟s paternal ancestor was Lam-Co, an immigrant from Fujian, China who converted to Catholicism. He changed his name to Domingo Lam-co. Domingo's only surviving child was named Francisco, and this son was the first to use the last name - Mercado. Francisco Mercado‟s grandson, Francisco II, changed the family name in 1859 to Rizal to suit his farming business. Rizal is derived from the Spanish ricial, which means “green fields”. Teodora Alonzo came from the clan of Lakan Dula, known as the last king of Tondo. José Rizal also had scant Spanish ancestry. His grandfather was a half Spaniard engineer named Lorenzo Alberto Alonzo. Rizal even had Negrito ancestors. José Rizal was executed at Bagumbayan, Manila on 30 December 1896. He was 35. Campaign for reforms started with the formation by the middle class Propaganda Movement. Foremost among them where Graciano Lopez Jaena, Mariano Ponce, Marcelo H. Del Pilar, and Jose Rizal. Propaganda Movement aims: Philippines be made a province of Spain Representation in the Cortes Filipino priests instead of Spanish friars Freedom of assembly and speech Equal rights before the law (for both Filipino and Spanish plaintiffs) The movement failed to attain the reforms they demanded. José Rizal, the most celebrated intellectual and radical ilustrado of the era, wrote the novels Noli Me Tángere (published in Berlin,1887), and El filibusterismo (published in Ghent,1891), which greatly inspired the movement for independence. Andres Bonifacio founded the Katipunan (Kataastaasang, Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan) in July 7, 1892 on a radial platform: to secure independence and freedom of the Philippines by force. The society remained secret until Teodoro Patiño exposed the society to Fr. Mariano Gil on August 19, 1896. On August 23, 1896, the Katipuneros tore up their cedulas shouting – “Long Lived the Philippines” thus making the so-called “Cry of Pugad Lawin”. Pen names of Propaganda Movement and KKK Leaders Dr. Jose Rizal Dimasalang, Laong Laan Marcelo del Pilar Plaridel, Dolores Manapat Graciano Lopez-Jaena Diego Laura Mariano Ponce Tikbalang, Naning, Kalipulako Antonio Luna Taga-ilog Jose Maria Panganiban Jomapa Emilio Jacinto Dimasilaw, Pingkian Andres Bonifacio Agapito Bagumbayan, May pag-asa Pio Valenzuela Madlang-away Apolinario Mabini Bini, Paralitico Juan Luna Buan Emilio Aguinaldo Magdalo The Katipunan in Cavite split into two groups, Magdiwang, led by Mariano Álvarez (a relative of Bonifacio's by marriage), and Magdalo, led by Emilio Aguinaldo. March 22, 1897 - The Tejeros Convention. The Magdalo faction under Aguinaldo and Magdiwang under Mariano Alvarez agreed to convene in Tejeros (now part of Gen. Trias) to settle their differences and to establish a new government that would replace the Katipunan. Elected Officers, Tejeros Convention Emilio Aguinaldo President Mariano Trias Vice President Artemio Ricarte Captain-General Emiliano Riego de Dios Director of War Andres Bonifacio Director of the Interior May 10, 1897 – Andres Bonifacio and his brother Procopio were executed after being found guilty of treason and sedition by a military court. November 1, 1897 – The Biak-na-Bato Constitution was signed. It was prepared by Felix Ferrer and Isabelo Artacho, who copied, almost word for word the Cuban constitution. It has effectively established the Biak-na-Bato Republic under Emilio Aguinaldo as the President. December 15, 1897 - Pact of Biak-na-Bato, a ceasefire between the Spanish colonial Governor General Fernando Primo de Rivera and the revolutionary leader Emilio Aguinaldo was signed. The terms of the pact called for Aguinaldo and his militia to surrender. Other revolutionary leaders were given amnesty and a monetary indemnity by the Spanish government in return for which the rebel government agreed to go into exile in Hong Kong. SPANISH – AMERICAN WAR April 25, 1898 – The USS Maine, having been sent to Cuba because of U.S. concerns for the safety of its citizens during an ongoing Cuban revolution, exploded and sank in Havana harbor. This event precipitated the Spanish–American War. May 1, 1898 - George Dewey led a U.S. naval squadron into Manila Bay in the Philippines and destroyed the anchored Spanish fleet in a leisurely morning engagement that cost only seven American seamen wounded. Manila itself was occupied by U.S. troops by August. The U.S. invited Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines in the hope he would rally Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. Aguinaldo claimed that an American naval officer told him that “The United States is a great and rich nation and needs no colonies.” E. Spencer Pratt, U.S. Consul, assured him “That the United States would at least recognize the independence of the Philippines under the protection of the United States Navy.” Aguinaldo arrived on May 19, 1898, via transport provided by Dewey. June 12, 1898 - Between 4 and 5 in the afternoon, Aguinaldo, in the presence of a huge crowd, proclaimed the independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite, establishing the First Philippine Republic. The Philippine National Flag made in Hongkong by Marcela Agoncillo was officially hoisted for the first time and Marcha Nacional Filipina composed by Julian Felipe was played by the San Francisco de Malabon Band. December 10, 1898 - The Spanish-American War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. It established the independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States, and allowed the victorious power to purchase the Philippine Islands from Spain for $20 million. Philippine–American War (1899 – 1902) Filipinos initially saw their relationship with the United States as that of two nations joined in a common struggle against Spain. However, the United States later distanced itself from the interests of the Filipino insurgents. Emilio Aguinaldo was unhappy that the United States would not commit to paper a statement of support for Philippine independence. Relations deteriorated and tensions heightened as it became clear that the Americans were in the islands to stay. Military Government (1898 – 1901) The American military government was established following the defeat of Spain in the Spanish–American War. During the transition period, executive authority in all civil affairs in the Philippine government was exercised by the military governor. Wesley Merritt (Aug 14 – 30, 1898) Elwell S. Otis (Aug 30, 1898 – May 5, 1900) Arthur MacArthur, Jr. (May 5, 1900 – Jul 4, 1901) Adna Chaffee (Jul 4, 1901 – Jul 4, 1902) On February 4, 1899, an American soldier, Private William Grayson, shot a Filipino soldier at the bridge of San Juan, Manila. This marked the beginning of the Philippine- American War, which lasted for three years and resulted in the death of over 4,200 American soldiers and over 20,000 Filipino combatants. As many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine, and disease. Civil Government (1901–1935) The Philippine Organic Act was the basic law for the Insular Government, so called because civil administration was under the authority of the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs. This government saw its mission as one of tutelage, preparing the Philippines for eventual independence. In socio-economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. Foreign trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in 1895, 13% of which was with the United States. By 1920, it had increased to 601 million pesos, 66% of which was with the United States. A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the mortality rate from all causes, including various tropical diseases, to a level similar to that of the United States itself. The practices of slavery, piracy and headhunting were suppressed but not entirely extinguished. Commonwealth Enacted 24 on Mar 1934, the Tydings–McDuffie Act (Sen. Millard Tydings, John McDuffie) provided for the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines with transition to full independence after a ten-year period. The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15, 1935. The Tydings–McDuffie Act meant that the date of full independence for the Philippines was set for July 4, 1946. High Commissioners (1935 – 1942 and 1945 – 46) Frank Murphy (1935 – 1937) Paul V. McNutt (1937 – 1939) Francis Bowes Sayre, Sr. (1939 – 1942) *Paul V. McNutt (1945 – 1946) - Following Philippine independence, became 1st U.S. Ambassador to the Philippines WWII AND JAPANESE OCCUPATION  On Dec. 7, 1941, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor, the US naval base in Hawaii.  Japan launched a surprise attack on the Clark Air Base in Pampanga on the morning of December 8, 1941, just ten hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor. This is the date of World War II outbreak in the Philippines. Aerial bombardment was followed by landings of ground troops on Luzon.  The defending PHIL and US troops were under the command of Gen. Douglas MacArthur. Under the pressure of superior numbers, the defending forces withdrew to the Bataan Peninsula and to the island of Corregidor at the entrance to Manila Bay.  On January 2, 1942, Gen. MacArthur declared the capital city, Manila, an open city to prevent its destruction. Jose Paciano Laurel President of the Japanese sponsored state (2nd Republic), also known as “Puppet Republic” In office: Oct 14, 1943 to Aug 17, 1945 The only Philippine President who served in 3 branches of the government: senator-congressman, associate justice and president. Japan successfully occupied the Philippines after the fall of Bataan on April 9, 1942 and Corregidor on May 6. 80,000 prisoners of war captured by the Japanese at Bataan were forced to undertake the infamous Bataan Death March to a prison camp 112 kilometers to the north. About 10,000 Filipinos and 1,200 Americans died before reaching their destination. Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerilla activity. One element of resistance in Central Luzon area was furnished by the Hukbalahap, led by Luis Taruc. Japan finally surrendered after Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945) were destroyed by atomic bombs. POLITICAL SCIENCE Political science is the systematic study of the State and Government. The word political is derived from the Greek word “polis” meaning a city, the word “science” comes from the Latin word „scire‟ meaning to know. State - a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of the territory, independent from outside or external control and possessing a government wherein a great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience. Government Government is a system of people, laws, and officials that define and control the country that you live in. The group of people who officially control a country. The government is the agent through which the will of the state is carried out. THREE INHERENT POWERS OF THE STATE 1. Police Power - it is the power of the state to regulate individual‟s rights and property for the general welfare. 2. Eminent Domain or Power of Expropriation – it is the power of the state to take possession of private property for public purpose and after payment of just compensation. 3. Power of Taxation - the power of the state to enforce proportionate contributions from the people for support of all government programs and services. FOUR ELEMENTS OF A STATE 1. Population – the most essential and indispensable element of a state. This is the mass of the population, or the number of people living within the state. There is no specific number of people required living within a state so that it could be called a state. 2. Territory – the established area that rightly belongs to the people of the state. This is the aerial (air), terrestrial (land), fluvial (stream/river), and maritime (water) domains of the state. 3. Government – the agency to which the will of the state is expressed, created and administered. This is a group of people or institutions which run and rule the society. 4. Sovereignty – It is the soul of a state. It implies that the state is independent from external interference, as well as can maintain integrity within itself. India could not be referred to as a state prior to 1947, as it did not have an independent government. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT As to number of persons exercising sovereign powers: Monarchy – a form of government wherein the power or sovereignty is exercised by one person only, usually a king or a queen. It could either be absolute or limited monarchy. Aristocracy – a form of government wherein the power is exercised by a limited few or the so-called elite. Democracy – It is a form of government wherein the power or sovereignty is exercised and or resides in the people. It may be classified as pure or representative democracy. As to extent of powers exercised by the central or national government: Unitary Government - control of national and local government is exercised by the central or national government. Federal – a form of government where the power of the state is divided into two namely: national for national affairs and local for local affairs. Each organ is independent in its own sphere. As to relationship between the executive and legislative branches of the government:  Parliamentary – a form of government wherein the President serves as nominal or titular head. It is the Prime Minister that runs the affairs of the State. He is directly accountable to the people. Under this system the ministry is legally responsible to legislature and consequently to the electorate.  Presidential – a form of government wherein the President is the chief executive of the state and independent of the legislature with respect to his tenure, acts and policies. CLASSIFICATIONS OF GOVERNMENT 1. De Jure – a form of government that is founded on existing legal or constitutional basis. 2. De Facto – a form of government that is not founded on constitutional law. It exists in fact but not in law. Constitution - body of rules and maxims in accordance with which the power of sovereignty is habitually exercised. Functions: To prescribe the permanent framework of the system of government assigned to the different departments their respective powers and duties, and established certain fixed first principles on which the government is founded. To promote public welfare, which involves the safety, prosperity, health, and happiness of the people. Requisites of a good written constitution: Broad – because it must outline an organization of the government for the whole State. Brief – because its nature requires that only its great outlines should be marked. Its important objects designated and the ingredients which compose those objects be reduced. EVOLUTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE PHILIPPINES 1897 Constitution of Biak-na-Bato - established the Republic of Biak-na-Bato. 1899 Malolos Constitution – the 1st republic and the 1st republican constitution in Asia. Philippine Organic Act of 1902 – enacted by the US Congress. Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 – “Jones Law” Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934) - Commonwealth 1935 Constitution – Commonwealth. 1943 Constitution - 2nd Republic, “Puppet Republic”. 1935 Constitution (1946-1972) – 3rd Republic 1973 Constitution – 4th Republic, modified parliamentary-style government, “the new republic” 1986 Freedom Constitution – provisional constitution. 1987 Constitution – 5th Republic CHANGING THE CONSTITUTION  Amendment - an isolated or piecemeal change in the Constitution.  Revision - the revamp or the rewriting of the entire instrument. 1st step – Proposal (Article XVII of the 1987 Constitution) By Congress - By 3/4 vote, it is understood to be 3/4 of the Senate and 3/4 of the House of Representatives. Constitutional Convention - The Congress may, by a vote of 2/3 of all its members, call a constitutional convention, or by a majority vote of all its members, submit to the electorate the question of calling such a convention. People‟s Initiative - Amendments to the Constitution may be directly proposed by the people through initiative upon a petition of: (1) at least 12% of the total number of registered voters; and (2) every legislative district must be represented by at least 12% of the registered votes therein. No amendment is allowed more often than once every 5 years thereafter. When shall the amendment or revision become valid? Any amendment or revision of shall be valid only when ratified by a majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite. In other words, the proposed amendments/revisions that come out of the Con-Ass, ConCon or people‟s initiative, as the case may be, must be ratified by the people through a plebiscite. This is ideally done through a special election. THE 1987 CONSTITUTION - STRUCTURE Preamble (“preambulare” „to walk before‟) We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to build a just and humane society, and establish a Government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations, promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our posterity, the blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution. Article I – National Territory Article II – Declaration of Principles and State Policies Article III – Bill of Rights Article IV – Citizenship Article V – Suffrage Article VI – Legislative Department Article VII – Executive Department Article VIII – Judicial Department Article IX – Constitutional Commissions Article X – Local Government Article XI – Accountability of Public Officers Article XII – National Economy and Patrimony Article XIII – Social Justice and Human Rights Article XIV – Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports Article XV – The Family Article XVI – General Provisions Article XVII – Amendments or Revisions Article XVIII – Transitory Provisions CLASSES OF RIGHTS Natural Rights – possessed by every citizen without being granted by the State for they are given to man by God as a human being. Ex: right to life, right to live, right to love Constitutional Rights - rights which are conferred and protected by the Constitution. Since they are part of the fundamental law, they cannot be modified or taken away by the law-making body. Ex: Privilege of Writ of Habeas Corpus Statutory Rights – rights which are provided by laws promulgated by law- making body and may be abolished by the same. Ex: right to receive a minimum wage, right to adopt a child by an unrelated person. CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS Political Rights - Gives the citizen the power to participate directly or indirectly. Civil Rights - Rights which the law enforce. Includes the rights to due process and equal protection of the law. Social and Economic Rights - Includes the right which are intended to insure the well-being and economic security of the individual. Rights of the accused - Civil rights intended for the protection of the person accused of any crime. Like the right to presumption of innocence. When Arrest may be made without warrant: 1. When in his presence, the person to be arrested has committed or attempting to commit an offense. 2. When an offense has in fact just been committed and he has personal knowledge of facts indicating that the person to be arrested has committed it. 3. When the person to be arrested is a prisoner who has escaped from a penal establishment or place where he is serving final judgment, or has escaped while being transferred to one confinement to another. WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS  Habeas corpus is a writ which requires a person under arrest to be brought before a judge or into court. This ensures that a prisoner can be released from unlawful detention, in other words, detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence. The remedy can be sought by the prisoner or by another person coming to the prisoner‟s aid. WRIT OF HABEAS DATA  The writ of habeas data is a remedy available to any person whose right to privacy in life, liberty or security is violated or threatened by an unlawful act or omission of a public official or employee, or of a private individual or entity engaged in the gathering, collecting or storing of data or information regarding the person, family, home and correspondence of the aggrieved party. WRIT OF AMPARO The writ of amparo is a remedy available to any person whose right to life, liberty and security is violated or threatened with violation by an unlawful act or omission of a public official or employee, or of a private individual or entity. Amparo serves a dual protective purpose: it protects the citizen and his basic guarantees, and protects the constitution itself by ensuring that its principles are not violated by statutes or actions of the state that undermine the basic rights enshrined therein. Thus, in the same way that habeas corpus guarantees physical freedom, amparo protects other basic rights. WRIT OF KALIKASAN A legal remedy under Philippine law which provides for the protection of one‟s right to “a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature,” as provided for in Section 16, Article II of the Philippine Constitution. It protects one’s right for a healthy environment rather than constitutional rights. The writ of Kalikasan may be sought to deal with environmental damage of such magnitude that it threatens life, health, or property of inhabitants in two or more cities or provinces. Who May File? Any aggrieved party may file a petition; or Any member of the immediate family of the aggrieved party, namely: the spouse, children and parents; or Any ascendant, descendant or collateral relative of the aggrieved party within the fourth civil degree of consanguinity or affinity. Where to File? The petition may be filed with the Regional Trial Court where the petitioner or respondent resides, or that which has jurisdiction over the place where the data or information is gathered, collected or stored, at the option of the petitioner. The petition may also be filed with the Supreme Court or the Court of Appeals or the Sandiganbayan when the action concerns public data files of government offices. BRANCHES OF THE GOVERNMENT LEGISLATIVE Congress is a bicameral legislature. The upper house, the Senate, is composed of 24 senators elected via the plurality-at-large voting with the country as one at-large "district." The senators elect amongst themselves a Senate President. The lower house is the House of Representatives, currently composed of 292 representatives, with no more than 20% elected via party-list system, with the rest elected from legislative districts. The House of Representatives is headed by the House Speaker. Senate of the Philippines Founded on October 16, 1916. Composed of 24 senators who are elected at large by qualified voters as may be provided by law. Term of Office – six (6) years. Term limits – 2 consecutive terms, (12 years). Natural-born citizen, at least 35 years old (on the day of the election) Prominent Senators Presidents Manuel L. Quezon – 2nd President. Jose P. Laurel – 3rd President. Sergio Osmeña – 4th President. Manuel Roxas – 5th President. Elpidio Quirino – 6th President. Carlos P. Garcia – 8th President. Ferdinand E. Marcos – 10th President. Joseph Ejercito Estrada – 13th President. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo – 14th President. Benigno S. Aquino III – 15th President. Geronima Josefa Tomelden Pecson – 1st woman senator. House of Representatives Currently composed of 292 representatives, with no more than 20% elected via party-list system, with the rest elected from legislative districts. Term of Office – three (3) years. Term limit – 3 consecutive terms, (9) years Natural-born citizen, at least 25 years old (on the day of the election) How a bill becomes a LAW? 1. The bill is assigned a number. First reading. 2. Referral to appropriate committee. 3. Second reading. Period of amendments. 4. Debates. 5. Printing and distribution. 6. Third reading. 7. Referral to the other House. 8. Submission to joint Bicameral Committee. 9. Submission to the President. If signed, bill becomes LAW. If the President fails to communicate his veto of the bill within 30 days after the receipt thereof, the bill automatically becomes a LAW. Veto - a Latin term for “I forbid” or “deny”. It is the power vested in the President to disapprove acts passed by the Congress. Purpose of a Veto To enable the executive department to protect its integrity as an equal branch of the government. To provide a check on hasty, corruptor ill-considered legislation. If the president vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds supermajority. If either house voted down on a bill or fails to act on it after an adjournment sine die, the bill is lost and would have to be proposed to the next congress, with the process starting all over again. Each house has its own inherent power, with the Senate given the power to vote on treaties, while the House of Representatives can only introduce money bills. The constitution provides Congress with impeachment powers, with the House of Representatives having the power to impeach, and the Senate having the power to try the impeached official. Impeachment Impeachment has been defined as a method of national inquest into the conduct of public men. It aims to protect form official delinquencies or malfeasance. Officials removable by Impeachment The president and vice-president (2) Members of the Supreme Court 1 CJ+14 AJ (15) Members of the Constitutional Commissions (COMELEC, COA, CSC) (3) The Ombudsman (Tanodbayan) (1) Grounds for Impeachment (Section 2, Article XI) Culpable violation of the constitution – ex. CJ Corona‟s failure to disclose SALN Treason – crime of trying to overthrow your country Bribery - the offer or acceptance of anything of value in exchange for influence on a government/public official or employee Graft and corruption – ex. Former Senator Jinggoy Estrada‟s graft cases for allegedly receiving P183.79M in kickbacks from his pork barrel, some of which were supposedly personally delivered to his San Juan City home. Betrayal of public trust (new ground for impeachment) – ex. fraudulent act of malversation of funds and falsification of documents. Malversation of public funds Elements of malversation of public funds are: that the offender is a public officer; that he had the custody or control of funds or property by reason of the duties of his office; that those funds or property were public funds or property for which he was accountable; and that he appropriated, took, misappropriated or consented or, through abandonment or negligence, permitted another person to take them. (Cantos vs. People, G.R. No. 184908, July 3, 2013) QUO WARRANTO “Quo Warranto” is Latin for “by what authority” – as in, “by what authority does this person hold this office?” A special form of legal action used to resolve a dispute over whether a specific person has the legal right to hold the public office that he or she occupies. It is used to test a person‟s legal right to hold an office, not to evaluate the person‟s performance in the office. Quo Warranto petition Justices of the SC voted 8-6 on 11 May 2018 granting Solicitor General Jose Calida‟s “quo warranto” petition, invalidating Maria Lourdes Sereno‟s appointment as chief justice. Sereno became the first constitutional officer to be removed from office without an impeachment trial. Sereno was the first woman to be appointed as chief justice. EXECUTIVE Executive power is vested to the President; in practice however, the president delegates his power to a cabinet. The cabinet is mostly composed of the heads of the executive departments, which provide services to the people, and other cabinet-level officials. The president, who is both the head of state and head of government, is directly elected to a single six-year term. In case of death, resignation or incapacitation, the Vice President acts as the president until the expiration of the term. President Natural-born citizen, at least 40 years old (on the day of the election) Registered voter Can read and write Resident of the Philippines for at least 10 years Term – 1 term only of 6 years Lawyers (9) – Manuel L. Quezon, Jose P. Laurel, Sergio Osmeña, Manuel Roxas, Elpidio Quirino, Carlos P. Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal, Ferdinand E. Marcos, Rodrigo R. Duterte Soldiers (2) – Emilio Aguinaldo, Fidel V. Ramos Economists (2) – Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, Benigno Simeon “Noynoy” C. Aquino III Actor - Joseph Ejercito Estrada Mechanic – Ramon Magsaysay Housewife – Corazon C. Aquino Bar Topnotchers Laurel: 2nd in the Philippine Bar (1915) Osmeña: 2nd in the Philippine Bar (1903) Roxas: 1st Place in the Philippine Bar (1913) Garcia: 7th in the Philippine Bar (1923) Macapagal: 1st in the Philippine Bar (1935) Marcos, 1st in the Philippine Bar (1939) Vice-President Natural-born citizen, at least 40 years old (on the day of the election) Registered voter Can read and write Resident of the Philippines for at least 10 years May be appointed as a Member of the Cabinet Term – 1 term only of 6 years In case of death, permanent disability, removal from office, or resignation of the President, the Vice-President shall become the President to serve the unexpired term. No person who has succeeded as President and has served as such for more than four years shall be qualified for election to the same office at any time. JUDICIARY The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court and other lower courts. The Supreme Court is the court of last resort, and decides on constitutionality of laws via judicial review. It is composed of a Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. The Court of Appeals is the second highest appellate court, the Court of Tax Appeals rules on tax matters, and the Sandiganbayan (People's Advocate) is a special court for alleged government irregularities. The Regional Trial Courts (RTC) are the main trial courts. The Regional Trial Courts are based on judicial regions, which almost correspond to the administrative regions. PRINCIPLE OF CHECKS AND BALANCES 1. Executive branch has the power to check the legislative branch by vetoing laws that Congress wants to pass. 2. Legislative branch may check the executive branch by passing laws over the veto by two-thirds vote in each house. 3. Judicial branch may check both the legislative and executive by declaring laws unconstitutional. Other checks and balances: Executive over the judicial branch. The president appoints all supreme court justices. Legislative over the executive branch. The legislative branch must approve appointments that the president makes; the Senate must approve treaties that the president makes; and the legislative branch may investigate the executive branch. Legislative over the judicial branch. The legislative branch must approve the president‟s choice of judges to the judicial branch; may propose constitutional amendments to overturn judicial decisions. Legislative over the executive and judicial branches. The Congress has impeachment powers with the House of Representatives having the power to impeach, and the Senate having the power to try the impeached official. Judicial over the executive branch. Supreme Court justices cannot be fired by the president. ECONOMICS “Oikonomia” Greek word meaning “management of the household”. Economics is the study of how scarce resources are allocated to fulfill the infinite wants of consumers. NEEDS: are the basic necessities that a person must have in order to survive. ex: food, water, shelter and clothing. WANTS: something we would like to have but is not necessary for survival. ex: things that people would like to have, such as bigger homes, iphones, etc. Microeconomics – the study of the economic decisions and actions of individual people, companies, etc. Macroeconomics – the study of the large economic systems of a country or region. FACTORS OF PRODUCTION Land – the “gifts of nature”, or natural resources not created by human effort. Capital – tools, equipment, machinery, and factories used in production. Labor – includes people with all their efforts, abilities, and skills. Entrepreneurs – risk-taking individuals in search of profits. Types of Products Consumer goods – products sold to general public. ex: rice, milk, sugar Capital goods - products purchased by other businesses to produce other goods and services. ex: computers, machines, tools Services - intangible products provided by businesses. ex: barber, teacher (education), doctor (health care) Inflation – a continuing rise in the general price level usually attributed to an increase in the volume of money and credit relative to available goods and services. Effects of Inflation Decrease in the value of money (Purchasing Power of the Peso). Inflation Losers – fixed salary worker, retirees living on pension. Inflation Gainers – People with flexible income, debtors. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Gross domestic product is the best way to measure a country‟s economy. GDP is the total value of everything produced by all the people and companies in the country. It doesn‟t matter if they are citizens or foreign-owned companies. If they are located within the country‟s boundaries, the government counts their production as GDP. Gross National Product (GNP) An estimated value of the total worth of production and services, by citizens of a country, on its land or on foreign land, calculated over the course on one year. Total value of Goods and Services produced by all nationals of a country (whether within or outside the country). Philippine Economy 33rd largest economy in the world. El Banco Español Filipino de Isabel II (Bank of the Philippine Islands) – 1st bank opened in the Philippines in 1851. The Philippines is the world‟s largest producer of coconuts producing 19,500,000 tons in 2009, and pineapples producing 2,458,420 metric tons in 2013. In 2008, the Philippines has surpassed India as the world leader in business process outsourcing (BPO). GEOGRAPHY “Geo” (earth), “graphien” (to describe or write about) Geography literally means “to write about the earth”. Geography is devoted to the study of the Earth‟s landforms, oceans, environment and ecosystems, and the interactions between the human society and their environment. Notable geographers Erastosthenes, “Father of Geography” - calculated the equatorial circumference of the Earth at 40,233 kilometers using simple geometric relationships. Measurements of the Earth using modern satellite technology have computed the circumference to be 40,072 kilometers. Strabo – wrote Geographica, one of the first books outlining the study of geography. Hipparchus – invented the system of longitude and latitude used on maps. Alexander von Humboldt – considered as Father of modern geography. William Morris Davis – father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion. MAPS A map is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, or themes. The word "map" comes from the medieval Latin Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant napkin or cloth and mundi the world. Cartography is the study and practice of crafting representations of the Earth upon a flat surface, and one who makes maps is called a cartographer. TYPES OF MAPS Physical Map Has colors that make natural patterns stand out. The colors on the map can stand for types of vegetation, mountain, and natural features. Names of big natural features are easy to see. Physical maps also include some political information, such as boundaries. Political Map Usually colored by country or by state. Political colors make it easy to compare size, shape, and location. Bold letters often make the country names stand out. Symbols make it easy to tell capitals from other cities. Political maps also name certain physical features, such as rivers and lakes. Climate Map The climate of a place. Rainfall and temperature are climate‟s main ingredients. Climate is affected by elevation, distance from the ocean, and latitude. Topographic Maps These maps generally represent a small area with a lot of detail. They show elevation with contour lines, natural and man-made features. Land Use Resource Map These maps show how land is being used. This might refer to: vegetation crops being grown forest vs. Agriculture mines city zoning. Economic or Resource Maps An economic or resource map shows the specific types of economic activity or natural resources present in an area through the use of different symbols or colors depending on what is being shown on the map. Road Map A road map or route map is a map that primarily displays roads and transport links rather than natural geographical information. In addition to roads and boundaries, road maps often include points of interest, such as prominent businesses or buildings, tourism sites, parks and recreational facilities, hotels and restaurants, as well as airports and train stations. CONTINENTS OF THE WORLD Asia Largest continent and includes within its limits an area of 44,444,100 km2 (17,159,995 mi2), or about 33% of the world„s total land surface. Most populous of all the continents, with a population of 4,436,224,000 (2016), or 59.69% of the world„s total population. The highest point is in Mount Everest, which towers at 29,029 ft. located in Nepal; the lowest point is 395 m (1,296 ft.) below sea level along the shores of the Dead Sea in Israel and Jordan. Africa Second-largest continent after Asia. Total population as of 2016 is 1,216,130,000 or 16.36% of the world‟s total population. Europeans called Africa the “Dark Continent” Africa has a number of outstanding natural features. The northern coastal area is separated from the rest of the continent by the Sahara, the largest non-polar desert in the world. Mount Kilimanjaro (19,340 ft.), a semi-active volcano, is Africa„s highest peak. The Nile, the world‟s longest river (6650 km/4,132 mi) can be found in this continent. Africa is the most rural and least urbanized of the continents. North America The continent„s land area places its third in size among the seven continents. It covers an area of 24.71M k² or 16.5% of the Earth‟s total land area. Total population is 579,024,000 or 7.79% of the world‟s total population. It is extended in the northwest by the peninsula of Alaska and its Aleutian Island chain, in the northeast by the world„s largest island (Greenland). Of the more than 400 million people in North America, almost 60% are located in the United Sates and another 20% live in Mexico. In North America, the overwhelming majority are Christians. The most dominant languages in North America are Spanish, French, and English. There are also a large number of people who speak Danish, but they are mostly confined to Greenland. Canada is the largest country in North America. It is followed by the United States, Greenland and Mexico. North America‟s lowest point is the Badwater Basin, located in Death Valley National Park, California. It has a surface elevation of 282 feet below sea level. The famous Niagara Falls can also be seen in this continent which straddle the international border between the Ontario, Canada and the state of New York. North America‟s highest point is Mount McKinley (Denali), which is a mountain peak located in Alaska. It has a summit elevation of 20,310 feet above sea level. The world‟s largest fresh water lake is in North America. Lake Superior, located on the border of United States and Canada, has a total surface area of 82,100 k². South America South America is the world„s fourth-largest continent; it is smaller than North America but larger than Antarctica. The Amazon River surpasses all others in volume of flow, and the Amazon Forest is the world„s largest rain forest. Angel Falls in Venezuela is the highest uninterrupted waterfall in the world. It is 979 meters high, and its water plunges for 870 meters uninterrupted. Aconcagua is tallest mountain in South America and the highest mountain outside Asia, at 6,960.8 m. (22,837 ft.), and the highest point in both the Western Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere. It is located in the Andes mountain range, in the Mendoza Province, Argentina. The largest country in South America is Brazil. The smallest country in South America is Suriname. It is about 50 times smaller than Brazil. At only 540,000 people, it also has the smallest population on the continent (and one of the smallest in the world). South America„s racial heritage stems from three basic sources: Caucasian, African and Indian. Roman Catholicism is found throughout South America. The continent is part of Latin America, so named because most of its settlers during the colonial period came from the Iberian Peninsula. Antarctica Antarctica is the fifth-largest and southernmost continent. Its position at the South Pole, together with its elevation and ice-and-snow cover, generates the coldest climate on Earth. Total population is 4,490 (2016). The summer population is several thousand, but only a few hundred scientists and support personnel stay during the winter. They live in semitransparent bases. Tallest peak is Vinson Massif which towers at 4, 892m. Europe Europe is the second to the smallest continent. It is physically attached to Asia and forms the western end of the immense Eurasian land mass. For historical reasons it has been treated as a separate continent. The highest elevation is at Mount Elbrus (5,642m). Vatican City with around 1,000 people is the world„s smallest sovereign state. Australia Australia is the world‟s smallest continent, it is the sixth-largest country, one of the world„s oldest landmasses, and the flattest continent. Mount Kosciuzko which towers at 2,228m is Australia‟s highest peak. Prior to permanent European settlement in Australia, the continent was populated by a number of diverse groups of hunter-gatherer peoples, who as usually referred to as “Aborigines”. Oceania - Refers to a group of island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean (together with the continent of Australia). 1. Melanesia (“black islands”) includes the large quasi-continental islands immediately north and east of Australia, from New Guinea to New Caledonia. 2. Micronesia (“little islands”) is almost exclusively composed of tiny atolls dotting the western Pacific. 3. Polynesia (“many islands”) is an immense region in the central Pacific, those islands farthest removed from Asia. It includes both large volcanic islands and coral atolls within a triangle connecting Hawaii, Easter Island, and New Zealand. Oceania COUNTRIES - Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, New Zealand, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Cook Islands, Niue, Vanuatu. DEPENDENTS – American Samoa, Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Baker Island, Clipperton Island, Christmas Island, Cocos Islands, Coral Sea Islands, French Polynesia, Guam, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, Northern Mariana Islands, Pitcairn Islands, Tokelau, Wake Island, Wallis and Futuna, Easter Island, Hawaii, Juan Fernandez Islands, Palmyra Atoll. Seven Summits The Seven Summits are the highest mountains of each of the seven continents. Summiting all of them is regarded as a mountaineering challenge, first achieved on 30 April 1985 by Richard Bass. The Seven Summits achievement has become noted as an exploration and mountaineering accomplishment. MAJOR OCEANS Pacific Ocean The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's oceans, extending from the Arctic in the north to Antarctica in the south. Covering 169.2 million k², it is larger than all of the Earth's land area combined. The Pacific's greatest asset is its fish. The shoreline waters of the continents and the more temperate islands yield herring, salmon, sardines, snapper, swordfish, and tuna, as well as shellfish. Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest ocean covering 106.4 million k². It occupies about one-fifth of the Earth's surface. The major species of fish caught are cod, haddock, hake, herring, and mackerel. Eel, lobster, and whales have also been taken in great quantities. Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean, covering 73.56 million k², or about twenty percent of the water on the Earth's surface. Endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales. Oil and ship pollution threatens the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea. Southern Ocean The Southern Ocean is the fourth-largest ocean, covering 20.32 million k². It is typically between 4,000 and 5,000 meters d

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