Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn PDF

UNIT TWO PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN  The Horn of Africa is referred to as the cradle of humankind.  It is also a region where early civilizations including food production, making tools and religion took place.  2.1. Human Evolution  Human evolution accounts on...

UNIT TWO PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN  The Horn of Africa is referred to as the cradle of humankind.  It is also a region where early civilizations including food production, making tools and religion took place.  2.1. Human Evolution  Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of the globe that had been formed through gradual natural process since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years before present (B. P.). 1  The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B. P.  Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small beings emerged at c. 800 million years B. P.  Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million years B. P. and then some primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) while others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).  Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is a cradle of humanity.  Evidences related to both biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys both by Ethiopian and 2 foreign scholars.  Many fossil records have discovered in Ethiopia:  Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP)-Middle Awash.  Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.)- Middle Awash.  A three years old child’s fossil termed as Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3 million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.  Another Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.) 3  Later the genus homo have been recovered in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn around 2-2.5 million years:  Homo habilis,(skillful use of hands), dated 1.9 million years B. P.  A fossil named Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.).  Homo sapiens (knowledgeable human being, dated 400, 000 years B.P.). 4  Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-economic transformation on human life.  It can be conventionally grouped in to: Stone Age, Bronze Age, and  Iron Age.  Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings.  By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be grouped in to Mode I(Olduwan, named based on the first 5 report made at Olduvai Gorge,Tanzania).  Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul, on the Somme River in France ).  Acheulean stone tools are the products of Homo erectus, a closer ancestor to modern humans.  Mode III (Sangoon).  The Mode I stone tools are mainly characterized by crude and mono-facial styles.  Mode II stone tools were produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features. 6  Mode III stone tools are characterized by  The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods.  The Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.)  Human being developed language with shelter in cave using stone, bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing.  There was sex-age labor division with able- bodied males as hunters of fauna, and children and females as gatherers of flora. 7 II.Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.) was transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New Stone Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P). II. Neolithic Revolution  Human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life.  The domestication of plants and animals.  Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers’ population resulted in the declining number of animals and availability of plants.  People cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.  The domestication of enset plant reduced shifting cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots), slowing8 down soil exhaustion.  The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us agricultural stone tools.  Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas and vegetables have been excavated from Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana.  Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as well as rock paintings of domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar.  Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around Lake Basaqa near Matahara. 9  2.3. THE PEOPLE OF THE REGION  The Horn is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn.  Linguists classify languages super families of Ethiopia and the Horn into two:  Afro-Asiatic and  Nilo-Saharan  I. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families: A. Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:  Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan.  Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; 10 Hamtanga and Bilen.   Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido,Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.  Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania. B. Semitic: is divided into two:  North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea- Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray).  South: is further divided into two  Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.  Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered). 11  C. Omotic: distributed around the Omo River Valley.  Eg. Gamo , Gofa, Walayta, kafficho, Hamer, Yem, Dorze, etc. II. Nilo-Saharan: Eg. Berta, Gumuz, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er,, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.  Language classification did not remain static.  Factors like population movements, warfare, trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization. 12  2.3.2. SETTLEMENT PATTERNS A settlement pattern is the results of long historical processes in northeast Africa.  In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse.  Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others the lowlands.  Studies indicate that environmental, socio- economic, and political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of peoples in the Horn. 13  Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile  The Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn.  Semites are the second majority people next to the Cushites.  Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul- Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin. 14  The Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern Omo.  2.3.3. Economic Formations  The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two interdependent modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism.  In the Horn, agriculture and pastoralism form the livelihood.  Yet, topographic features and climatic conditions largely influenced economic 15 activities in the Region A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern lowland region since early periods.  Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat, and cattle has been the dominant form of activities in the lowland regions of the Horn  The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years supporting sizable populations.  Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming. 16  The major economic activity of the Omotic has been mixed farming and trade in northern Omo while southern Omo have predominantly practiced pastoralism and fishing.  They also practice metallurgy, weaving and other crafts.  The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro- Akobo Rivers have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food.  Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high economic and social values 17  2.4. RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PROCESSES  2.4.1. Indigenous Religion  This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which are native to the region and have been followed by the local people since ancient times.  Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa.  Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana.  There are several major spirits based on Waqeffanna. Exa., 18  Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit) Atete (fertility spirit) Balas (victory spirit) Chato/Dora (wild animals defender).  In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of ever-flowing river and top of mountain respectively.  There is thanks giving festival called Irrecha besides New Year. 19  Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, who is believed to exist before everything (hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and agana (moon).  The Kambata have Negitaor Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious officials known as Magnancho.  The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Magenoand had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.  The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh. 20  The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana including Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit).  The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo and a person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or eke-nayo.  The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power called Iqa, which created everything and presides over the universe.  The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for the prevention of drought, flooding, erosion, disease and starvation within the 21 community and their surrounding environment.  An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and beliefs are fused with Christianity and Islam.  This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism.  2.4.2. Judaism  Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established with the ancient Jewish (Hebrew).  Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples since early times.  It began to be clearly noticed in the 4th century AD, when the Bete-Israel one of the ancient peoples in the region, refused to be converted to Christianity. 22  2.4.3. Christianity  Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360), who dropped pre- Christian gods like  Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god),  Arwe (serpentpython god), Bahir (sea god)  and Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity.  Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius (Fremnatos) were reponsible for his conversion to Christianity.  When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC).  Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt 23 continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the   Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later part of fifth century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478- 86) by the Nine Saints. Name Origion Monastry/ Location Church 1 Abuna Aregawwi Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray (Abba Za Mika’el) 2 Abuna Isaq (Abba Rome Debre Gerima Medera (East of Gerima) Adwa ) 3 Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Asbo (North East of Pentelwon Aksum) 4 Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of Aksum) 5 Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Biheza (Northeast of Haleluya Aksum) 6 Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera 7 Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum 8 Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa 24 9 Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Ger’alta Yima’ata  The saints also translated Bible and other religious books into Geez.  They were responsible for the expansion of Orthodox Christianity into different parts of the country.  From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, Jesuits tried to convert Orthodox Christians to Catholicism.  This led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits.  As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of treaties concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian 25 authorities. 2.4.4. ISLAM  Prophet Mohammed started the teaching of Islam in Mecca in 610 AD  He faced opposition from the Quraysh Arabs.  Because of this opposition , prophet Mohammed sent his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum.  The first group of refuges was led by Jafar Abu Talib.  The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28.  Islam spread to the Horn of Africa not through Jihad, but through peaceful ways including trade. 26  Islam was well established in Dahlak  The port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden served as an important gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly intothe present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.  From the coasts of the Red Sea and the Gulf of den, Islam radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia.  A Muslim saint Sheikh Hussein of Bale spread Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.  Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th c AD. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. 27