History of Ethiopia and the Horn PDF - Exam Paper

History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist. 1012) A Common Course for Students of Higher Learning Institutions Instructor: Demeke D. Haramaya University College of Social Sciences and Humanities School of History and Heritage Management ...

History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist. 1012) A Common Course for Students of Higher Learning Institutions Instructor: Demeke D. Haramaya University College of Social Sciences and Humanities School of History and Heritage Management  Course Description In short, this course is designed as a common course given to Ethiopian Students of Higher Learning Institutions. The course is divided into seven major chapters and other specific subtopics. The purpose of the course is to help students understand the history of Ethiopia and the Horn from ancient times to 1995 as a base for shaping and bettering the future. The course generally focuses on major topics in the history of Ethiopia and the Horn including social, cultural, economic, and political developments and their interrelationships thereof. The contents of the course consider the chronology and thematic relations of events in time and space. To make it inclusive and representative, the course also includes regional histories across the period.  Course Objectives General Objective The general objective of this course is to introduce students to the diverse histories of Ethiopia and the Horn and the extent to which interaction between peoples throughout the region and with the outside world has shaped the history of the region.  Specific Objectives The specific objectives of the course are to enable students to:  distinguish the nature and uses of history;  identify pertinent sources for the history of the peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn;  describe changes and continuities that unfolded in Ethiopia and the Horn;  elucidate the causes, courses, and consequences of events that happened in the region;  explain the nature of the region’s external contacts and their effects; and  appreciate peoples’ achievements, heritages, and cultural diversities of the region.  General Course Content INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION (3 HOURS) UNIT TWO: PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4 HOURS) UNIT THREE: POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY (6 HOURS) UNIT FOUR: POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES (6 HOURS) UNIT FIVE: POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES (10 HRS) UNIT SIX: INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941 (10 HOURS) UNIT SEVEN: INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941–1995 (5 HOURS)  Specific Course Contents INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION (3 HOURS) 1.1. The Nature and Uses of History 1.2. Sources And Methods of Historical Study 1.3. Historiography Of Ethiopia and The Horn 1.4. The Geographical Context  UNIT TWO PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4 HOURS) 2.1. Human Evolution 2.2. Neolithic Revolution 2.3. The Peopling of The Region 2.4. Religion and Religious Processes  UNIT THREE POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY (6 HOURS) 3.1. Emergence of States 3.2. Ancient States 3.3. External Contacts 3.4. Economic Formations 3.5. Socio-Cultural Achievements  UNIT FOUR POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES (6 HOURS) 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty 4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion, and Religious Processes 4.3. Political And Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates 4.4. Rivalry Between the Christian Kingdom and The Muslim Sultanates 4.5. External Relations  UNIT FIVE POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES (10 HRS) 5.1. Conflict Between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal, and After 5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies 5.3. Population Movements 5.4. Interaction And Integration Across Ethnic and Religious Diversities 5.5. Peoples And States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions 5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint  UNIT SIX INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941 (10 HOURS) 6.1. The Nature of Interactions Among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn 6.2. The Making of the Modern Ethiopian State 6.3. Modernization Attempts 6.4. Socio-Economic Developments 6.5. External Relations  UNIT SEVEN INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941–1995 (5 HOURS) 7.1. Post-1941 Imperial Period 7.2. The Derg Regime (1974-1991) 7.3. Transitional Government  UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1. THE NATURE AND USES OF HISTORY  A. NATURE OF HISTORY The term was derived from a Greek- Istoria inquiry or an account of one’s inquiries. The term was first used by Herodotus (484- 425BCE)- a Greek historian, also called the father of history. Commonly, history means all things that happened in the human past events and facts of the past but kept in writing. It is also what actually happened in the past but exists independently of the historian, however still awaits to be recorded.  Cont’d… Applying their expertise to historical facts, historians write history. Academically organized and systematic study of the past which involves discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about the past. However, history is selective in its study since what happened in the past is infinite. Generally, it is concerned about human society and its interaction with its environments in a time framework.  Cont’d… Considering significant social, political, economic, cultural, and environmental developments in the time framework, historians divide and study the past in periods. Hence, conventionally, history is divided into ancient, medieval, and modern history. This is called periodization in history and is one of the key x-stics of the discipline.  B. Uses of History  The uses of history in the context of the relationship between the past and the present :- To better understand the present Providing a sense of identity Provides a basic background for other disciplines Teaches critical thinking →how to find and evaluate sources; make coherent,… present clearly and analytical and communication skills Helps develop tolerance and open-mindedness → acquire/give broad perspectives that give them the range and flexibility in many life situations Supplies endless sources of fascination → offers a sense of beauty and excitement History can also be abused… come mainly from deliberate manipulation of the past to fit current political agenda (propaganda), interpreted to justify the present and for monetary purpose  1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study Historians are not creative writers like novelists. Their work is supported by evidence obtained from sources. Sources provide life to what appears to have been dead. It is said that “where there are no sources, there is no history”. Sources are,therefore, key to studying and writing history.  TYPES OF SOURCES  Historical sources are broadly classified into two types :- 1. Primary Source Surviving traces of the past Original and firsthand information in their proximity to the event both in time and in space. Examples manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters, minutes, court records and administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials, and artifacts such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings.  Cont’d… 2. Secondary Source Second-hand published accounts of the past. Produced long after the events happened. Examples articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published stories or movies about historical events. No history work can be taken as final as new sources always provide new interpretations and reconstructions. Oral Data → constitute the other category of historical sources. This is important to study and document the history of non-literate societies. Used to fill missing gaps and verify written words. For the study of Ethiopian history, all are employed.  Cont’d… Oral data can be divided into two:- 1.Oral tradition—information orally transmitted from generation to generation, for example, through folk songs and folk sayings 2. Oral history–an eyewitness account that involved people directly participated on certain historical event (People can also provide oral testimonies or personal recollections of lived experience.)  Source Evaluation or criticism for their originality and authenticity :- External and Internal.. Historians (unlike novelists) must find evidence about the past, ask questions of that evidence, and come up with explanations that make sense of what the evidence says about the people, events, places and time periods they study about. 1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn Historiography:-  A history of historical writing /History  Studying how knowledge of the past is obtained and transmitted  an intentional attempt to understand and represent descriptions of past events in writing.. The organized study and narration of the past was started with Herodotus (484-425 B.C.E.) and Thucydides (455-400 B.C.E.). The Chinese were also other writers in the ancient times and the notable person was Sima Qian (145-86 B.C.E.) during the Han Dynasty.  Cont’d… Despite all these history as an academic discipline started in the second-half of the 19th century ,first in Europe and then in other parts of the world including the US… Leopold Von Ranke and his colleagues established history as independent discipline in Germany-Berlin with its unique study methods/ methodology.  made greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past based on evidences and critical evaluation. Ranke is, therefore, considered as the “father of modern historiography” or Scientific study of historical research.  Cont’d… Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn:-  This section is devoted to exploring significant transformations in historical writing  it is first necessary to examine earlier/ancient period forms of historiography (historical writing). The earliest reference on the Ethiopia and the Horn is the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, written in the first century A.D by an anonymous author. Other document was the Christian Topography composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D. The document describes the Aksumite trade and its King’s campaign on both sides of the Red Sea. There are also inscriptions that were written since the 7th c AD. And was found in Yeha, Abba Gerima Monastry.  Cont’d… Other document was discovered in Haiq Istofanos Monastery in Wallo in the 13th century. Though these inscriptions dealt with religion, they provide an insight about the country’s past for historians. They contain lists of medieval kings and their brief histories. The common source for the medieval Ethiopia was hagiography, associated with the EOC and Muslim Communities. These were written in Ge’ez (EOC) and Arabic (Islam) to enhances the prestige/ miracles of the saints.  Cont’d… Hagiography also presents about the development of church and state and the King’s territorial annexations. Equally, in Muslim communities, there were also hagiographies, and one of such traditions was the one dedicated to a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira, in Wollo, in the late 19thc. The document also discusses the development of indigenous Islam and the communities’ external relations.  Chronicle is also another Principal source- an indigenous tradition of history writing in Ethiopia.  Cont’d… This appeared in the 14thc continued to the 20thce in Ge’ez and Amharic. The works of chroniclers were trusted by the Kings and the earliest and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu respectively. They describe about the monarch’s genealogy, upbringing, military exploits, piety and statesmanship. Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework.  Cont’d… They also explain events in religious terms than social and economic developments. Problems related to chronicles are problems of quantifications and setting clear chronology of events. Other important documentsaccounts of Arabic-speaking travelers.  al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture, language and import-export trade in the region in the 10th and 14th centuries respectively.  Cont’d… The Yemeni writers were important in recording about the 16th and 17thcs developments in the region. two documents composed by Yemeni writers who were eyewitnesses to the events they described are:- 1.Shihab ad-Din wrote Futuh al Habesha recorded the Muslim vs Christian conflicts in the 16th cen.  Described the operation of the war including the conquest of northern and central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. Major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of the country were also documented. 2.The other first-hand account was written by Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes (1632-67).  Cont’d… Other first-hand document was Abba Bahrey’s account of the Oromo people expansion written in 1593. With all its limitations, it provided primary information about the Oromo movement and the Gadaa system The European missionaries and travelers also left us important document from the 16th to 19th centuries. They documented mainly about religious and political developments and Ethiopia’s foreign relations. An example of such accounts are :-  Cont’d…  The Prester John of the Indies written by F. Alvarez (Portuguese).  the one written by J. Bruce- Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile. Many foreigners also developed interests in Ethiopian studies and important in this case was Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704). Was the founder of the Ethiopian studies in Europe in the 17thc and wrote Historia Aethiopica (A New History of Ethiopia). Did not visit Ethiopia but collected the information from Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) who was in Europe at that time.  Cont’d… In the 19thc, August Dillman published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history. Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of objectivity in his historical research endeavors. Traditional Ethiopian writers→ Early 20th century marks departure from chronicle in the development of Ethiopian historiography. Traditional Ethiopian writers departed themselves from chroniclers and criticized them for their praising tone while writing about the monarchs.  Cont’d… The earliest group were:- Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis and Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi. Later,Negadrases-Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn joined them. They had been writing about social justice, administrative reform, economic analysis, and history. Taye and Fisseha-Giorgis wrote books on the history of Ethiopia while Asme produced a similar work on the Oromo people.  Cont’d… Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in Ethiopian history while Gebre-Hiwot has Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public Administration) to his name. The most prolific writer of the early 20thce, however, was Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie. He published four major works Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema), Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia). In contrast to their predecessors,Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and methodological sophistication in their works.  Cont’d… Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early experiment in modern history writing and publications.  After or Post Liberation Period Historical works; Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians who came after him. He published about eight historical works and he also made a better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors. Yilma Deressa’s work during this time was also another important document Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen (A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century).  Cont’d… The book addresses the Oromo population movement and the Muslim-Christian conflicts. Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel also wrote Zikre Neger, which deals with the pre-war land tenure system and taxation in Ethiopia. Gebre-Wold Engidawork also left us with the history of land tenure system in the country as well. Further, Dejazmach Kebede Tesema wrote his memory of the imperial era published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.  Cont’d… 1960s important in the development of modern Ethiopian historiography. History emerged as an academic discipline. Historical studies became a full-time occupation with the opening of the Department of History in 1963 at HSIU. At the end of the decade, a large number of BA theses were produced. The opening of MA and Ph.D. in 1979 and 1990 respectively contributed to a wide range of research by both faculties and students.  Cont’d… The opening of IES (Institute of Ethiopian Studies) a research organization) in 1963 further contributed to the development of Professional Ethiopian historiography and becomes its home. In this institute, Richard Pankhurst, the founder, and director, did a lot of prolific publications in the area of Ethiopian studies. He has authored or co-authored twenty-two books and produced several hundred articles on Ethiopia. Since its foundation, the IES has been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of historical research.  Cont’d… Professionalization of history in other Horn countries is a post- colonial development. After independence they became interested to know about their past… Then they began to re-cast historical records and recover evidence of pre-colonial civilizations. To do this, they began to use new methodological approaches like oral data and tapping the percepts of auxiliary disciplines like archeology, anthropology, and linguistics.  Cont’d… Other European scholars also began to challenge the Euro-centrism of the previous studies which expanded to North America in the 1960s. Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in London and the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Francophone scholars have been as influential as Anglophones. Generally, African historiography is the result of both the European and African universities’ scholarships.  1.4. The Geographical Context Ethiopia and the Horn part of NE Africa containing Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. The Great Rift Valley is a fissure in the Earth’s crust runs from Syria to Mozambique… and also marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates  Great Rift Valleyshaped the Topography /physiographic features of the region The region is chax. by massive highland complex of mountains and a plateau divided by the Great Rift Valley System and surrounded by lowlands, semi-desert, deserts, and tropical forests along the periphery. diversity of the terrain led to regional variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns.  Cont’d… People across the border in the region are diverse but never isolated historically rather they interact… As they differ in some cases, they also share some common past. History of the region has been shaped by contacts with the external world in a number of ways… The region is surrounded by the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Aden, and the Nile River as well as Sudan and Kenya. The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked the region to the Eastern Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East, India, and the Far East.  Cont’d… The Indian Ocean again to the Near and Middle East, India, and the Far East. There are five important drainage systems in the region’s: 1. The Nile River System white Nile (Uganda) & Blue Nile (Ethiopia) flow to the Mediterranean Sea. 2. The Awash River System links the cool central highland with the hot, dry lowlands of the Danakil Depression. 3. The Rift Valley Lakes System includes a string of lakes stretching from Lake Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana 4. The Gibe /Omo–Gojeb River System links southern Ethiopia to the semi-desert lowlands of northern Kenya and 5. The Shebele and Genale rivers originate in the Eastern highlands and flow southeast toward Somalia and the Indian Ocean.  Cont’d… The Genale River flows to the Indian Ocean but the Juba/Shebelle disappears in the Somali desert. The region is also divided into three environmental zones: 1. The Eastern Lowland Northeastern and lowland Eritrea, the Sahel, the Denakil depression, the lower Awash valley, and the NE part of Djibouti, Ogaden, Lower parts of Hararge, Bale, Borana, Sidamo, the Republic of Somalia. Climate hot and dry with no seasonal variation. Vegetation Shrub and bush are characteristic types in the region. Receives periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall except in the area crossed by rivers Settlement sparse.  Cont’d… 2. The Central Highland runs from Eritrea all the way to southern Ethiopia. Consists of Arsi, Bale, and Hararge plateaus The Great Rift Valley System divides this region into two- the eastern and western parts Topography of the region mountainous, deep valleys, extensive plateaus 3. The Western Lowland extends from north to south on the Ethio- Sudanese borderline. Hot lowland Formerly covered by thick forest on the banks of the Nile and its tributaries  Cont’d… Despite all these, the horn countries are linked linguistically, religiously, and ethnically… Population movements had caused a continuous process of interaction, creating a very complex picture of settlement patterns. The interaction and sharing of a long common history by the people had weakened ethnic dividing lines in large parts of the region. Linguistic and cultural similarities are, therefore, as important as ethnic origin in the grouping of the population.  UNIT TWO THE PEOPLE AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN  INTRODUCTION Ethiopia and the Horn is the cradle of mankind. Center of civilization where food production, tool making, and religious practices started contributing to: Social evolution; Economic formations; and Socio-cultural and political settings. The purpose is to show that the region is home to:- diverse peoples, cultures (languages, religion, customs…) and economic activities  1. Human Evolution Human evolution accounts for only a fraction of history of the globe that had been formed through gradual natural process since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years before present (B. P.) The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion BP. Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds, and other small beings emerged around 800 million BP. The primates evolved around 200-170 million yrs. BP.  and then some Primates developed into:- Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc.); others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).  Cont’d… Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is the cradle of humanity. Ethiopian and foreign scholars discovered evidences of these in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River Valleys. The following are some of fossil evidences in Ethiopia: Chororapithecus (10mln BP)in Anchar (W/ Hararghe) 2007 Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (5.8-5.2mln BP) in Middle Awash Ardipithicus ramidus (4.2mln BP) at Aramis in Afar 1994 Australopithecines (3.6mln BP) at Belohdelie in Middle Awash  Australopithecus afarensis, Selam (3.3mln BP) at Dikika, Mille, Afar 2000 Australopithecus afarnesis, ( Lucy/Dinkinesh (3.18mln BP) at Hadar in Afar 1974 ; complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters with a pelvis looks like bipedal female..  Cont’d… There were also fossils discovered in the region: In Lake Turkana Australopithecus anamensis At Bouri Middle Awash Australopithecus garhi (2.5mln BP) 1996- 1999 Development in human brain main feature of the next stage of human development resulting in genus Homo:- Emerged around 2-2.5mln BP. Fossils recovered in different parts of the Ethiopia and the Horn 1. Homo Habilis (skillful use of hands) 1.9mln BP  in Lower Omo 2. Homo Erectus (walking upright, 1.6mln BP) at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb Homo Erectus originated in Africa and spread to the rest of the world.  Cont’d… 3.Homo Sapiens (knowledgeable human being, dated 400,000BP) named Bodo in Middle Awash. Similar species also named-- Homo Sapiens-Sapiens (100,000BP) at Pork Epic (Dire Dawa) and Kibish (Lower Omo) in 1967. In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195,000 B. P, the oldest date in the world for modern Homo sapiens Homo Sapiens Idaltu (160,000BP) in Middle Awash, 1997  Cultural Evolution Technological changes that brought socio-economic changes in human life… There were different stages Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age. Stone tools the first technologies developed… Based on their features, ways and periods of production, they are classified as: Mode I (Olduwan named after first report made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania), Mode II (Acheulean named after the first report at St. Acheul, France), and Mode III (Sangoon).  Characteristics of these Materials Mode I Tools crude and mono-facial styles, and produced by the direct percussion. Mode II Tools produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed, and convex features Mode III Tools characterized by flexible and fine form of production by the use of obsidian. Examples of these stone tools have been found in Ethiopia and the Horn.  Cont’d… Bones (3.4mln-11,000BP) were also discovered with stone-tool- inflicted marks on them (the oldest evidence of stone tools in the world) at Dikika in 2010. Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were also discovered near Gona (2.52mln BP in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar. Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools (1.7mln BP) invented fire and started burial practices. Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963.  Cont’d… Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools (300,000 yrs. BP). Gademotta site in the central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000 BP. Other sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one, and Yabello (Ethiopia) and Midhidhishi and Gudgud (Somalia) have offered noteworthy information about Stone Age communities.  Division of Stone Age Palaeolithic/Old Age (3.4-11,000BP) people lived in caves, developed languages, and used stone, bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing Sex-age labor division able-bodied males as hunters and females and children are gatherers. Mesolithic/Middle Age (11,000-10,000BP) A transition between the Paleolithic and neolithic age A Neolithic/New Stone Age (10, 000-6, 000 BP)  2.2. Neolithic Revolution Human beings transferred from mobile to settled life. Radical shift involving changes from hunting and gathering to domestication of plants and animals. This is the result of climate change and an increase in the number of hunter-gatherers. Domestication of plants and animals took place independently across the world. In the elevated and wetter parts of Ethiopia and the Horn, people had been cultivating teff, dagussa, nug, inset, etc.  Cont’d… Elements of the Neolithic revolution were discovered in different areas: Emba-Fakeda (Adigrat) and Aqordat and Barentu (Eritrea)polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures, and animal remains were discovered. Gobodara rock shelter (Axum) Agricultural stone tools. Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana domesticated cattle, chickpeas, and vegetables. Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar Stone tools used for cutting. Lake Basaka (Matahara) domesticated cattle, etc.  3. Peopling of the Region 1. Languages and Linguistic Processes  Introduction Ethnically and linguistically, Ethiopia and the Horn is a diverse region. Over 90 languages and 200 dialects in the region. However, there is some degree of unity where there are two super language families spoken in the region Afro-Asiatic and Nilo- Saharan. A. Afro-Asiatic Has three sub-divisions Cushitic, Semitic, and Omotic Cushitic northern, central, eastern, and southern Cushitic Northern Beja (in Northern Eritrea bordering Sudan). Central Agaw (Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen). Eastern Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc. Southern Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania. Semitic Northern and Southern Semitic NorthernGe'ez, Rashaida (Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (Eritrea and Tigray).  Southern Transverse :- Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane, Zay, Outer:- Gafat (extinct),Gurage,and Mesmes (endangered ).  Cont’d… Omotic includes the following… Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc. B. Nilo-Saharan Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk. Language classification did not remain static. Factors- like population movements, warfare, trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have resulted in intense linguistic processes that forced languages to be affected. In this process, some languages died out or have been in danger of extinction while others thrived over time  2. Settlement Patterns Population distribution and settlement pattern in the region is the result of long historical processes. However, settlement is not uniform across the region. Since earliest times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the east and the Blue Nile in the west. The Kushites, the dominant group in the region, also expanded from Sudan to Tanzania beyond the HoA. The Semitics, the second dominant, also settled the northern, north- central, northeastern, south-central, and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.  Cont’d… The majority of the Omotic people live in the southwestern parts of Ethiopia along the Omo River except for the Shinasha (in B-Gumuz) and Ma’o (in Wallagga). The Nilots dominate the western part along the Ethio-Sudanese borderlands. But some like the Chari-Nile inhabited as far as southern Omo.  3. Economic Formation Domestication of plants and animals resulted in two forms of modes of production agriculture and pastoralism. These are also common in Ethiopia and the Horn. There could be pure pastoralists but this is not always true in the case of farming with no cattle. Economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn are influenced by topography and climate. Pastoral economies dominate the lowland areas and is common among Afars, Saho, Somali, Karrayyu, and Boranas…  Cont’d… Plateaus are known for plow agriculture and support large populations where the majority practice mixed farming. 10,000yrs BP, sedentary started and advanced here by the Kushites, Semites, and Omotic groups. The Northern Omotic practiced mixed farming and trade Southern Omotic pastoralism and fishing. Other Omotic were also known in metallurgy, weaving, and other crafts. In the western part pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture, and hunting. Sorghum, millet, cotton, and other crops have been largely cultivated in the lowlands along the Ethio-Sudanese border since antiquity.  Cont’d… The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers practiced shifting cultivation where sorghum has been a staple food. Among the majority of Nilotic communities, cattle have high economic and social values. Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with northern Sudan. 4. Religion and Religious Processes  Introduction The people of the region practiced four different types of religion: Indigenous, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. 1. Indigenous Religion Communalities of Indigenous Religion:- Refers to belief systems and practices native to the region, and have been followed by local people for centuries. Such religious practices believe in Supreme Being but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred.  there were/are intermediaries b/n the society and the spirits Some major indigenous religious groups Among the Oromo people, Waqeffanna is a common religion and believes in the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa, whose power is manifested through Ayyana.  There are so many spirits that the Oromo worship and some of these are:  Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit),  Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit),  Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit),  Balas (victory spirit),  Chato/Dora (wild animals defender),  Gijare/Nabi (father and mother’s sprit),  Jaricha (peace spirit), and  Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc.  Cont’d… The Oromos also believe that the dead exists in the form of ghost called Ekera. The people are also known in Irreechaa festivity celebrated during autumn and spring seasons every year. According to these people, Qaalluu is a revered expert that link between the ayyaanaa and the believers. There were senior Qaalluu-Abba-Muda(who conducted anointment)- Jila-pilgramage Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top, red at center and white at bottom representing those in pre-active life, active (Luba) and those in post-active life respectively.  Cont’d… The Hadiyas believe in a Supreme Being called Waa, whom they believe created the World. Kambata also accepts Negita or Aricho Magano- Sky God-, and religious officials known as Magnancho. Gedeo Mageno with thanks giving ceremony Deraro Konso Waaq/Wakh Gojjam Agaw Diban (Sky God) Gurage Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit (health goddess). Yem Ha’o (Sky God). Wolayta God-Tosa/Spirit-Ayana Different forms of spirit Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo spirit) etc.  Cont’d… Konta Docho. Kafficho called their God Yero/ Spirit Eqo. The father of all spirit dochi or dehe-tateno. Harvest spirit Kollo. Earth and area spirit Showe-kollo and Dude-baro respectively. Boro-Shinasha people: Their God Iqa The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven) Believe that God comes through rain, lightning and Thunder, They believe rainbow as a necklace of God Generally, there are so many things that makes indigenous religious practices similar across the different ethnocultural groups in the region. An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and beliefs are fused with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism. 2. Judaism Considered as a covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established with ancient Hebrew community. This has been practiced by the people of Ethiopia and the Horn before Christianity. The Bete-Israel practiced their unique type of religious practice called Haymanot different from Rabbinic Judaism. There are different Version-to its introduction:- These people trace their origin to the Dan clan of the Israelites -led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.). split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of Solomon or Babylonian Exile return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba) …..who fell in love… Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D. Bete-Isreal in Ethiopia to an intermarriage between Jewsh immigrants with native Agaws. Or Bete-Israel are remnants' of old testament followers of orthodox Christianity rather than Jews who migrated from abroad 3. Christianity Became state religion in Ethiopia by 334 AD. during Ezana (320-360). He was converted by two Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frumentius (Fremnatos). Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC). Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch. Christianity expanded the mass by the 5th century AD during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints.  Cont’d… The saints also translated the Bible and other religious books into Geez. The expansion of the religion continued under the Zagwe (1150- 1270) but reached highest in the medieval period (1270-1527). During this time, many churches and monasteries in different places were built including the Reck-Hewn Churches of Lalibella, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre- Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar. These churches and monasteries are not only religious centers, but served as repositories of ancient manuscripts and precious objects of art.  Cont’d… From 16th-17th centuries, the Jesuit missionaries, the Jesuit missionaries tried to convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic. Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits. However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within the EOC that is discussed in subsequent units. Later, as of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion also resulted in the conclusion of treaties between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities. Active personalities in this were the Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie.  Cont’d… Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries under such leaders as Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf. The protestant group were effective in winning the confidence of the local people. They translated the Bible to the vernacular languages. Adopted old names for the Supreme Being- Waaqayyoo, Tosa, etc. Established village schools open to all members of society and also provided medical facilities and these all attracted large number of people. Eventually, continuous and systematic indoctrinations seem to have resulted in grafting of new teaching on indigenous religion. 4. Islam Prophet Mohammed had preached the religion in Mecca as of 610 AD., but was opposed by the Quraysh rulers. Then he sent some of his followers to Axum with his daughter Rukiya, her husband (Uthman), his future wives (Umm Habiba and Salma). This first group were led by Jafar Abu Talib. The word of the Prophet when he sent his followers to Axum: "…a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are suffering.“ Then they got asylum from 615-628 by Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), Though the Quraysh rulers asked for repatriation, the King refused to do so. The word of the Axumite King: "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refugees with me.”  Cont’d… Gradually, Islam expanded in Ethiopia and the Horn peacefully through trade and missionaries. Then it became strongly established on Dahlak (Alalay) Island by the beginning of the 8th century AD. By the 9th century, the Muslim community on the Island developed a Sultanate. Through time, others also settled on the coastal areas around the Red Sea and gradually expanded among the pastoralists. But the Dahlak route played a minor role in the expansion of Islam into the interior. Why?  Cont’d… Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Aksum and later states of northern Ethiopia and open proselytization of Islam was prohibited Then the Zeila port became important gateway up to the central part as far as Shewa, Wallo, and Hararge. The religion strongly established itself on the coastal areas by the 8th and 9th centuries then expanded to the rest part through traders and the Muslim clerics---led to Muslim state formation like:- Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid (the Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D), claimed decent from Meca.. Ifat- established by Umar Walasma (Walasma Dynasty-- 1271 and 1285--1415), claimed descent from Hashamite clan→ Arabia. Adal (1415-1577) State an extension of Ifat‘s Walasma Dynasty  Cont’d… Sheikh Hussien of Bale, a Muslim saint (Waliy) of medieval period was important in the expansion of Islam in Bale, Arsi, and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Sof Umar Cave another Islamic center in Bale Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th century A.D. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269. The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of local Muslims.  UNIT THREE POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY  Introduction Since ancient times to the end of the 19th century, people of the region underwent socio-political, economic, and cultural changes. One such change was the evolution of states due to agriculture and trade. Religion shaped the socio-cultural life of the people. Some socio-cultural achievements were the development of architecture, writing, calendar, numerals, etc. the external relations of the period had significant role in shaping the history of region. 1. Emergence of States This is the result of sedentary agriculture. The features of this period were: Construct permanent residence Farming and harvesting crops to store to protect from humidity Families preferred to live together forming large communities for security purposes Ox-drawn plow agriculture Development of market system and traders Specializations in particular activities– --- artisans Hence, state formation was the result of agriculture whereas trade facilitated the development and expansion of states.  Cont’d… State autonomous political unit having: Population Territory Sovereignty and Government States developed independently across the world. Religious leaders (such as shamans )were important in shaping the socio-cultural landscapes of states. Through time, religious leaders were replaced by chiefs who began to collect taxes, provide security issues, and other bureaucratic activities.  Cont’d… Ethiopia and the Horn is among the African regions where early state formation took place. The states gradually developed into empires with well-demarcated social structures. The ability to control international water bodies and their ports around the region made some states become stronger and dominate other neighboring states.  2. Ancient States 2.1. North and Northeast States A. Punt The earliest recorded state in the region The evidence of its existence the Egyptian hieroglyphic writings and paintings that show the Egyptian naval expedition sent by the Pharaohs like Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) to collect myrrh, ebony, and electrum (gold and silver alloy) and other important items at different times. The best described and illustrated expedition was the one undertaken by the order of the famous Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), The expedition was warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu, his wife Ati, sons, daughters and followers It was because of the ritual importance of their exports that Puntites were also known as Khebis of the Ta Netjeru (divine or ghosts land). There is no consensus among scholars about the exact location of the Punt. Hence, references are used to locate the place in the region. Myrrh and incense point it to be northern or northeastern Somalia Gold, ebony, and monkey refer to northern Ethiopia. Others suggest it extended from Swakin (Massawa) to Babel Mandeb and Cape Guardafui.  B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea Da’amat: Located a little to the south of Axum Kings had been using Mukharib the politico-religious title of South Arabians. People worshipped various gods and goddesses Almouqah (principal god), Astar (Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god). Yeha: Located 30kms to the NE of Aksum This was a place where South Arabian merchants buy and store different trade items. Become strong and developed from 750-500 BC.  Hawulti Melazo and Addi-Seglemeni were other states that are found surrounding the Axumite state by that time.  There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc.. B. The Aksumite State It was formed around 200-100 BC and first controlled a very small area in the region only the center and its environs. Gradually expanded to control other territories in all directions  the Red Sea to the western edge of the Ethiopian plateau (east-west) and Eritrea to northern Shawa (north-south). Adulis was the major port of the Aksumite state during that time. There were other ports like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera) on the Aden and Serapion (Mogadishu), Nicon (Brava), and Merca on the Indian Ocean that Aksum had been using.  Cont’d… Export items from Aksum mainly of natural products such as ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia, and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells, and some curiosity animals like apes. They also import from Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, and Persia. Glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; Metallic sheets, tools, or utensils of various kinds, oil, and wine from the Roman Empire and Syria. Axum also had a link with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia Minor). Its King, Zoskales (c.76-89 AD), used to speak the Greek language by that time.  Cont’d… The Axumite external contact resulted in the exchange of ideas, and material and spiritual culture. However, the contacts were not always peaceful and Aksum managed to control Yemen around 200 AD. Aksum Kings (like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. ) had been minting and using coins between the 3rd and 7th centuries made of gold, silver, and bronze that were used for local and international trade. Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i.e., the Roman Empire, Persia, China, and Aksum) at the time.  Cont’d… Aksum had strong ships and fleets used for both trading and wars during those days. It was during Kaleb (500-35AD.) that Aksum expanded overseas but there were local conflicts between the Christians and the converted Judaism. In this conflict, a large number of Christians were killed in Zafar and Nagran by a local prince Dhu-Nuwas, who was converted to Judaism. Kaleb got support from the Byzantine king, Justinian (r. 527-65 AD), against Dhu-Nuwas and defeated and replaced him with Abraha in Arabia.  Cont’d… Aksum declined since the 7th century AD. due to internal and external challenges. Environmental degradation, the decline in agricultural productivity, and possibly plague infestation started to weaken it. Arabs destroyed Adulis, controlled the Red Sea coasts, and cut off Aksum from external relations. This weakened the Aksumite economy which came to be manifested in military and governance. This opened the way for a local rebellion from the Beja, the Agaw, and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) that finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state D. Zagwe Dynasty After the decline of Aksum, the political center shifted southward and established among the Agaw community. The Agaw were part of the Aksumite state since ancient times which gave them an opportunity to participate in assuming different positions. When Aksum became weakened, they successfully overtook governance. Merra Teklehaimanot overthrew the last Aksumite King, Dilna’od, and became the first Zagwe King. Successive rulers since then were Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc.  Cont’d… The seat of the new dynasty was in Bugna District within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela). Territorial extension: All ancient provinces of Aksum in the north Northern Shawa in the south Lake Tana region and northern part of today’s Gojjam in the west and Red Sea coast in the east Under the Zagwe, ancient Aksumite traditions were kept intact. Renewed cultural contact with the Mediterranean world Export items slaves, ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, various types of drags and newly minted coins were imported.  Cont’d… In architectural development and translation of religious materials into Ge’ez, Zagwe period was the golden age in Ethiopian history. The period was known for the construction of caves, and semi-hewn and monolithic churches. Caves eg. Bete-Mesqel. Semi-hewn eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos. Monolithic eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem. Among these, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all, and Bete Giyorgis is the most finely built in the shape of the Cross. Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, and avoid difficulties, which Ethiopian Christians encountered in their journey to the Holy Lands. This was done by constructing churches based on the model of the Holy Lands in Israel.  Cont’d… Finally, the Zagwe Dynasty ended due to internal power struggle and oppositions from group claiming Solomonic descent. The Solomonic groups considered the Zagwes as power usurpers and organized revolts in many ways. Then Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285) organized his forces with the assistance of the EOC and engaged the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek in battle. Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state power proclaiming the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty.  3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States 1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat A. Bizamo :- Located south of the Abbay River around today’s Wambara , in the 8th century and had early contact with Damot B. Damot:- The strongest state that expanded its territory into: Most of south of Abbay, North of Lake Tana and East of Didessa Its prominent king was Motalami C. Enarya :-One of the Gibe states in southwestern Ethiopia Its Royal Clan Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso) Its Kingship divine one Hinnare-Tato was considered sacred. D. Gafat:.. lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining Damot on the south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom.  inhabited by Semitic speaking population ,largely remained practitioners of their own indigenous religion, was paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom early medieval period and was governed by rulers bearing the title of Awalamo.  Cont’d… 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates Since 8th cen , along the main trade routes from Zeila to the interior viable Muslim states had been established. These states include :- A.Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, claimed decent from Meca, set up the Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D on northeastern foothill of Shewa B. Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh century. It was a hilly lowland area with Well cultivated, and extensive grazing grounds. C. Dawaro: south of Fatagar b/n upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle →to Charchar… and Gindhir... had a currency called hakuna for transaction. D. Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes. Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces. Trade… on barter was important and had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry  E. Ifat: located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash It was established by Umar Walasma, claimed descent from Hashamite clan and said to have come from Arabia between 1271 and 1285. Incorporated the sultanate of Shewa….weakened by civil war and annexed F. Others: autonomous states like Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim were established and flourished.  UNIT FOUR POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES Introduction  Dynamic political, economic, and socio-cultural developments→ lay the foundation for the formation of modern Ethiopia in the subsequent years. some major events of the period were: The "restoration" of the "Solomonic" Dynasty, succession problems, territorial expansion, evangelization, Flourishing of trade as well as extensive socio−cultural interactions..who lived in different agro−ecological zones… 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic” Dynasty Rulers claimed that they descended from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od. However, this claim does not have historical evidence, that is why we put it “...” The claim Solomonic rulers descended from King Solomon of Israel is legendary. The claim was written in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”) that associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition. Kibre Negest states Ethiopian ruling class descended from Menelik I of Queen Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. Hence, Ethiopian monarchs from Yekuno Amlak to Haile Selassie I(13th -20th century) claim descent from Menelik I…basis for their divine right to rule. 4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious Processes 4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’ of Amba Gishen →After Yekuno-Amlak in 1285, ower struggle set in among his sons and grandsons on succession.  →This was stated in the letter written by Yagba-Tsion to the Sultan of Egypt and the Alexandrina Patriarch in 1290. This was stated in the letter written by Yagba-Tsion to the Sultan of Egypt and the Alexandrina Patriarch in 1290. The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299. The problem seemed transformed in the 1300 during the rule of Widim-Ra’ad (1299-1314). Established a Royal Prison House at Amba Gishen in Southern Wallo where all male members were confined until one is installed on to the throne.  Cont’d… The prison house was kept by guards loyal to the reigning king. When the reigning king dies, then the designated successor is brought to put on throne. This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540.  4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom 1270-1636 the Monarchs had no permanent seat; mobile/Roving The initial center South Wallo Lake Haiq. Gradually shifted southward to Menz, Tegulet, Bulga finally Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains. After assuming power, Yekuno-Amlak consolidated his empire and defeated Ifat. However, till Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the center of the Christian Kingdom was limited to Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa.  Cont’d… Amde-Tsion the first Solomonic king to conduct massive territorial expansion. Aim economic and political controlling trade routes and territories. This time, trade expanded and vast territories were controlled. Areas controlled Gojjam Agaw (1323/4), Bizamo and Damot (1316/7), Bete-Israel (1332), and the Red Sea Coast. In order to strengthen his power in the north, Enderta was given to his wife Bilen-Saba. Ifat and Shawa cooperated with the rebellious group in Enderta led by Yibeka-Igzi resisted Amde-Tsion in 1320s.  Cont’d… His son became the governor of Tigray In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to Eritrea …controlled and assigned a governor by the title Ma'ekale-Bahir later changed to Bahire- Negash. The Muslim sultanates in the southeast and the Omotic states of the south were brought under the Christian kingdom. By 1330s, Amde-Tsion fully controlled the trade routes and trading sources in Ethiopia. His successors continued his trend of territorial expansion and consolidation of the empire.  4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob I. Evangelism Christianity has long history in the country even before the expansion of the Christian kingdom. The early Christians played a role in expanding the religion across the country. Eyesus Mo’a preached in the newly incorporated areas where the influence of Christianity was non-existed or minimal. The religion largely expanded with the territorial expansion of Amde-Tsion. In the 13th century, Abune Tekle-Haymanot played a role in reviving Christianity in Shawa, and then Damot.  Cont’d… Abune Tekle Haymanot converted and baptized Motalami. - damot ruler The clergy also spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa such as  Kil'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya.  II. Religious Movements A. The Ewostatewos Movement In the EOC, monasticism became dominant in the mid-13th century. This was the period of the development of monasticism and religious movements in the country. The major religious movement the Ewostatewos Movement, named after the founder. Ewostatewos: Established his own monastic center in sera’e (Eritrea), Trained many students until 1337 Taught the strict observance of Sabbath He faced opposition from the clergy, left for Egypt but also faced the same from Ethiopians in Cairo.  Cont’d… After Ewostatewos left the country: The movement weakened but revived when some of his followers returned back home from Armenia His followers dispersed to different monasteries in northern Ethiopia The movement spread to areas like Enfraz, northern Tigray, and Hamassen. Some Ewostatonians were imprisoned… The King and the Abun opposed the movement and established anti-group under the Abbot of the Hayq Monastery called Aqabe- Se’at Sereqe-Birhan. Clergies expelled Ewostatonians from their churches Some were forced to settle in the remote peripheries while some others sustained their movement in monasteries like Debre- Bizen, Debre-San, etc.  B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanisites Founded by Abba Estifanos Strengthened in the 15th century through to the 16th century. Abba Estifanos established rigid monastic organization poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and autonomy from secular authorities. Though discredited by his opponents, he gained followers from different monastic communities. Being invited to the court, he convinced the emperor that he posed no threat to the royal power or the church but later collided with Zara-Yaqob.  Cont’d… Estifanos:- disapproved of the Emperor’s religious initiatives, rejected royal supremacy and authority in spiritual matters and refused to participate in court judiciary procedures. This group also strongly opposed the veneration of St. Mary but were seriously punished by Zara Yaqob for this purpose.  III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob Zara Yaqob (r.1434-68) took the following measures to stabilize and consolidate the EOC: Settled conflicts among clergies Made peace with the Ewostatewos –recognized Sabbath Urged the clergy to preach Christianity in the remote areas Ordered people to fast on Wednesday and Friday Encouraged establishing libraries in every church which also revived religious literature Books written by Zara-Yaqob Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad, MetsafeSillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister,etc. Some parts of Te’amre Maryam were translated from Arabic to Geez during his reign.  4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates Since 14th century, many strong sultanates were emerged along trade routes and trade was the greatest factor for their development. Trade served two purposes for such sultanates the only source of livelihood and an agent for their formation. Hence, it became the source of conflict between the Muslims and the Christian kingdom. One of such strong Muslim Sultanates emerged on the trade route and resisted the Christian kingdom to the 16th century was the State of Adal.  4.3.1. The Rise of Adal The kingdom was the successor of the Ifat that managed to expand over the vast territory in Shawa and also resisted the Christian kingdom. Adal was founded by the branch of the Walasma Dynasty that moved southeast and settled in Harar in 1367…refused pay tribute. Its first seat was Dakar at southeast of Harar. After strengthening its power in the new center and Adal another phase of military campaigns against the Christian Kingdom. By 1520, they changed their seat to Harar after the defeat of Ahmed Gragn, then to Awsa (Afar) in 1576/7 following the Oromo expansion.  4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam Islam expanded through merchants and preachers. Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577) were the most notable ones. Zeila important trade route Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca were used as ports for their hinterland. Massawa served as an outlet for trade in the north. Generally, with the revival of trade, many trade centers emerged along the trade route from the coast to the interior. There were also market centers that served the Zeila trade route. 4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates This rivalry was between the Christian kingdom and the Sultanate of Ifat over the control of the Zeila route and trade items. The first conflict took place in 1328 when the Muslims organized their armies to take action against the Christian state. Haqadin I hijacked merchants, confiscated goods, and imprisoned the King’s agent coming from Cairo. Then Amde-Tsion retaliated, defeated Haqadin I, and imprisoned him but replaced his brother, Sabradin. Later, Ifat was defeated, Sabradin was captured, and Ifat, Fatagar, and Dawaro were incorporated.  Cont’d… What Amde-Tsion needed was: Annual tribute, Freedom of movement of merchants across the Zeila route. After the defeat of Ifat, others like Sharka, Bali, Dara, and Arbabani were also weakened. After Amde-Tsion, his successors continued to defend the Christian kingdom and conducted a repeated campaign to the lowlands. In 1376, Haqadin II refused to pay tribute to the son of Amde-Tsion (Neway-Mariam, r. 1371-80) but died in a war in 1386. Sa’d ad-Din II (1386-1402) gained an initial victory until Dawit I (1380- 1412) defeated him in 1402/3.  Cont’d… Sa’d ad-Din II remained a refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed him in 1415. After this, the power of Muslim states declined but Adal continued to challenge the Christian kingdom and killed Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq which intensified the struggle for predominance. By the mid-15th century, Zara Yaqob got access to the Red Sea.  In 1445, he defeated Ahmed Badlay but later Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71), his son and successor, sent a message of submission to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal to the Christian state.  Cont’d… Finally, Ba’eda Maryam was defeated by the state of Adal in 1474. Successors of Ba’ede Maryam were weak but still the Muslims opted for a peace settlement. Emir Mahfuz was the one who conducted an effective campaign to the north but was killed while fighting with the army of Libne Dingil. He was succeeded by Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi,“Ahmed Gragn.” Apart from the conflicting relations, the Muslim and Christian states also had wider socio-economic and cultural interactions.  4.5.External Relations 4.5.1.Relations with Egypt the Christian Kingdom continued to maintain relations with Egypt, which was mainly :- 1.Religious in character ---- both Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of religious minorities in their respective domain 2. Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the Abay River) that originated from Ethiopia.  harmonious relations established between King Dawit and Sultan of Egypt.  The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the "True Cross" and in return, Dawit is said to have given a number of religious paintings to the Sultan.. 4.5.2. Relations with Christian Europe Relation with Christian Europe during this time was influenced by the legend of the “Prester John.” Then subsequent contacts continued and Ethiopian delegates were attending different ceremonies in Europe. The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter of King Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D. and addressed to “Prester John”,the purported king of the Christian Kingdom. They even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with the help of this King. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the fifteenth century strengthened the relation between the Christian Kingdom and Christian Europe.  UNIT FIVE POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES  Introduction The unit deals with the socio-political and economic developments from the early 16th to the late 18th centuries. These developments contributed to the making of modern Ethiopia through different forms of social interactions and mixings. Major developments of the period: Expansion of trade Muslim-Christian conflict and external interventions Afar, Somali, Argobba, and Oromo population movements Religious expansions, the interaction of people, and resultant integrations States and societies in Ethiopia and the Horn The Gondarine Period (1636-1769), Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855) including the Yejju rule (1786-1853)  5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal, and After Revival of long-distance trade Muslim vs. Christian competition and struggle over the control of trade routes. Religion provided ideological justification the fact was controlling and exploitation of the peripheries. This war lasted from 1529-1543. Before the war, the Muslims faced internal strife and disunities and that called for new leadership. Then Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, whose origin is obscure, came to power.  Cont’d… Born in Hubet between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga, he was brought up by Muslim kin on the route to Zeila. He was a devout Muslim but served Garad Abun of Adal as a soldier before he assumed power. Traditionally told that after the death of the Abun, he left for the countryside and started calling for devotion to Islamic teaching. After he assumed power things changed from the need to control the trade route to territorial annexation for the Afar and Somali pastoralists. The Muslim pastoralists had the need to expand to the highland areas for better pasture and water.  Cont’d… “Ahmed Gragn” organized the Afar, Harari, Somali, Harla, Argoba and other communities for a common objective and conducted a war over the Christian kingdom. Settled their internal differences, mobilized to fight with the Christian kingdom, was also a guardian of Islamic doctrine from any alien teaching. He got acceptance and consolidated his army to fight the Christian Kingdom. This time, Libne Dengel was appointed at the age of eleven from the Christian kingdom. In the Muslim-Christain confrontations, initially the Christians were victorious and managed to penetrate into the Muslim territories.  Cont’d… Later, Gragn controlled Adal, refused to pay tribute to the Christian kingdom in 1520, and also conducted a military campaign in 1527. Then he became victorious and controlled the states of Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya, and Kambata and putting the Christian Kingdom at risk. By 1528, Libne Dengel mobilized a large army but failed to withstand the army of Gragn due to logistic problems and lack of a common agenda. Finally, the Christian army lost the Battle of Shumbura Kure in 1529. After this, the largest part of the Christian kingdom failed at the hand of Ahmed Gragn.  Cont’d… By 1535 Ahmed Gragn controlled from Zeila to Massawa. He established a civil administration that constituted his own men and newly selected ones from the Christian territory. Bati Del Wombera the most notable woman in the war. She was the daughter of Imam Mahfuz and the wife of Gragn and encouraged her husband for revenge against the Christian kingdom. Through all these, Libne Dengel remained a fugitive until he died in 1540. Then Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559) replaced him and continued the war with Muslims.  Cont’d… During this time, both sides began to get support from external world Muslims from Turks and Christians from Portugal. The Portuguese army was led by Christopher da Gama, the son of Vasco da Gama. But again in 1542, the Christian army lost the war at Ofla in Tigray, in which around two-hundred Portuguese armies were killed, and Christopher da Gama was beheaded. This time, Seblewongel, the wife of Libne Dengel was said to have participated in the war in 1542. Then, Ahmed Gragn developed confidence in his army that they can push back any force to come but the Christian army remained silent and got prepared for the final offensive.  Cont’d… Finally, on February 25, 1543, Ahmed Gragn was defeated and killed in the war at the Battle of Woyna-Dega. After this victory, Gelawdewos: Restored all the northern possessions Became tolerant of Muslims Revived smooth relations with the Muslim world Restored all the former territories and tributary states Attempted to consolidate the state Camped the chewa (regiments) in the border areas By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom. However, it was challenging to maintain dominance over the Muslim territories even later.  Cont’d… The Christian kingdom was challenged by the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman Turks, the Jesuit interlude, and the Oromo advance into the center. The Adalites organized under Nur Ibn al Waazir Mujahid to fight against the Christian state for revenge. In 1559, Gelawdwos was killed in a Battle with the armies of Emir Nur. After Gelawdwos, Minas (r.1559-1563) succeeded and assumed power. Defeated the Turks Reclaimed the lost territories including Dabarwa  Cont’d… By the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted supporting the Turks against the reigning emperor. But Sartsa Dengle (r.1563-1598) fought with internal and external forces during his time. External Turks Internal the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo. The Turks were defeated in the north and territories were regained.  Consequences of the Muslim-Christian War:- Human and material destruction  The easy success of the Oromos and domination of the region  Cultural and social interaction-integration among people of the country  The Muslim-Christian world competition over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean supremacy  The weakening of the power of the EOC and the destruction of properties  brought religious controversies with in the EOC  5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies During the war with the Muslim Sultanates, the Christian rulers made an alliance with the Roman Catholics to secure arms.  In 1557 catholic missionaries with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to expand the religion The Jesuit missionaries came with a different doctrine to the EOC about the nature of Christ. The EOC accepts the union the divine and human nature of Christ is inseparable.  Cont’d… Key Catholic missionaries Priests of the period Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez, and Alfonso Mendez The missionaries first approached Gelawdewos … unsuccessful. he defended the teachings of EOC in a document… Confession of Faith The Catholics succeeded with Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4) but his period was short for the Jesuits to influence. Later, Za-Dengel was deposed by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7) who also was challenged by Susenyos (r. 1607-32). Provincial leaders refused to pay tribute to Susenyos he integrated the Oromos with the government army and Susenyos sought for an alliance, which he got through the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez……wise and successful  Cont’d… By 1612, Susenyos was converted to Catholicism 1622 announced it to be the state religion. Different reforms were made: Reconsecration of the Orthodox priests and deacons Rebaptism of the mass Suspension of Old Testament customs male circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath Prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez Prohibition of fasting on Wednesday and Friday Prohibition of respect for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot) The Emperor ordered: eating pork The use of Latin Mass and Gregorian Calendar Finally, the emperor faced a challenge from including his son, Fasiledas (1632-67)  Cont’d… This resulted in religious controversy and the loss of many peasants’ lives. Finally, by 1632, Susenyos resigned in favor of his son, Faselidas, and he: Reversed Catholicism Restored the position of the EOC as the state religion Expelled the missionaries Punished local converts Introduced a close-door policy to the west but opened his door to the east Only James Bruce (1769) and Charles Jacques Poncet (1700) visited Ethiopia from the west during this time. From the influence of the Catholics, three doctrinal differences emerged within the EOC Tewahedo/Hulet Lidet (divinity and humanity united); Qibat eternal birth and Holy Ghost anointment; Sost Lidet born through Grace, born to the womb of Mary, and anointed by Holy Ghost.  5.3. Population Movements Reasons for the population movement: Push and pull factors Natural and social factors In search of resources and better living conditions In Ethiopia and the Horn conflict, drought, and demographic factors During the medieval period, the effects were: People integration Religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and Intermingling of people. Specific result of the period: Intermarriage of peoples, change of residence, an original culture, and evolution of new identities.  5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali This partly resulted from the Muslim-Christian conflict of the late 15th to early 16th centuries. Environmental pressure was also another factor as the area was located through which the trade route passes and was affected by conflicts. The people had been oscillating in response to the conflict in the region. Trade was a major agent of Islamic expansion and Muslim state formations.  A. The Argobba The Sultanate of Shewa moved eastward to escape the influence of the Christian kingdom. Then the Sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argobba were dominant, became the center of Islamic resistance. Towards the beginning of the war of Ahmed Gragn, the Argobbans joined armies with Afar and Somali. Due to its strategic location, Argobba became the center of conflict between Muslims and Christians.  Cont’d… Hence, the conflict resulted in the destruction of the state and the dispersion of the people. The lasting effect of the conflict can be observed from the fragmented settlement patterns of the people.  B. Afar Before the 16th century, they had pushed as far as the Middle Awash due to drought. Trade route also passed through their territory connecting the Horn. Then it became the center of competition over trade routes. They were also actors in the conflict but they also dispersed in a different directions due to the conflict. Their pastoral economy helped them to survive the disastrous war  C. Somali Located on the main trade route Before the Muslim-Christian wars of the 16th century, they faced an environmental challenge in the area. This contributed to the population movement that also became a strong force behind the military strength of Ahmed Gragn. However, after 1543, with the defeat of Ahmed Gragn, they returned back home and their influence did not last long. 5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522- 1618) A. The Gadaa System Strongly contributed to the Oromo population movement and expansion The socio-political institution through which the people organize themselves, defend their territories, administer their affairs, maintain law and order, and manage their economies. This system constitutes elements of Democracy like period election, fair representation, and power-sharing to prevent one-man rule. It is also an agent of socialization, education, maintaining peace, and social cohesion. It organizes the people into age-grades and generation sets delineating members' social, political, and economic responsibilities.  Cont’d… In the system, ten age grades and five classes operated in parallel. Cont’d… →Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly), Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera (father of law), Abba Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councilors. B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618) Resulted from the natural and man-made factors Natural  demographic and environmental change Man-made Muslim-Christian war to leave their homeland for other areas. After interruption for nearly two generations Gadaa was revitalized.  the Oromo were organized into the Borana and Barentu confederacies at Madda-Walabu…Chaffe (assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu in 1450. Oromo armies advanced to the north between Mount Walabu and Lake Abaya, then westward to Bilatte River, to the south, and then turned north to the Lakes Region of the Rift Valley.  Cont’d… From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars. Melba (1522-1530)  fought and defeated the Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali Mudena (1530-8)  reached the edge of the Awash River. Kilole (1538- 46)  controlled Dawaro after defeating the Christian regiment Adal Mabraq while Bifole (1546- 54) advanced to Waj and Erer. Michille (1554-62)  scored a victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, and Jan Amora forces as well as Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahidin at Mount Hazalo. Harmufa (1562-70)  fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint, etc. Robale (1570-78)  fought with the army of Sartsa Dingil and first lost the battle at Wayna Dega in 1574 but later recovered and defeated the army of Zara’a Yohannis. Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa, and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment. Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray. In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and Mudena (1610-18) expanded to West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the Warday moved to Kenya, Bur Haqaba, and Majertin in Somalia.  Cont’d… In the course of their movement into various regions, different Oromo branches established Gadaa centers. For instance:- Oda Nabee of Tulema ; Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi), Oda Bultum of Itu- Humabenna, Oda Bisil of Mecha, Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha, Oda Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Oda Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc. became major Gadaa centers.  Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma, and others established Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws in their respective areas.  Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution, which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity. 5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities Interaction and integration across religion and ethnicity. The Oromo population mov’t brought an end to the Muslim- Christian War and southward expansion of the Christian kingdom. : The Oromo integrated non-Oromo → two adoption mechanism:- Guddifacha adoption of a child by a foster parent where the child enjoys equal rights and privileges with a biological child. Moggasa  adopted non-Oromos where the adopted groups gained both protection and material benefits The process significantly contributed to social cohesions, national integration, and the revival of long-distance trade. 5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern, and Western Regions The Easterners  Somali :_Historically, a council known as shir governed the society.  The decision making process was highly democratic.. all-adult male were allowed.  the guurti (a council of elders) was the highest political council mandated with resolving conflict and crisis  Cont’d… Afar:_ established sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad.  Awsa Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in the middle Awash.  in 1577… Mohammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Awsa.  At some point after 1672, Awsa declined and temporarily ended in conjunction with Imam Umar Din bin Adam's recorded ascension to the throne.  The Sultanate was subsequently re-established by Kedafo around 1734, and was thereafter ruled by his Mudaito Dynasty. ---Awsa’s economy mainly depended on Bati-Ginda’e trade route. Later it became center of Islamic learning led by preachers like Tola Hanfire. Argobba_Early reference to the people of Argoba is insufficient. Two versions on the origin of the people of Argoba.  The first version holds that they descended from the followers of the Prophet Mohammed who came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat.  The second version claims that the origin of the Argoba is not related with Muslim-Arab immigrants. More plausibly, the Argoba are one of the ancient peoples in the region that accepted Islam very early from religious leaders who came from Arabia The Emir of Harar:_ during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled- city.. → In the mid seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) established a dynasty which was to rule for nearly two centuries and a half… strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94). →1875-1885 Egyptians controlled the emirate for nearly a decade. → Amir Abdulahi--- the last emir of the Sultanate for two years conquered in1887 by Emperor Menilek’s expansion-defeated at -Chalanqo Other States The Central and South Central Shewa, Gurage, Kambata, and Hadya. The Southerners Sidama, Gedeo, and Konso The Southwesterners Wolayta, Kafa, Yem, Gamo, Dawuro, and Ari The Westerners Berta and Gumuz, Anywa, Nuer, Majang, the Kunama  5.6.The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint 5.6.1. The Gondarine Period A. Political Developments This began during Sartsa-Dengel when the political center moved to the Gondar area and established Royal Camp at Enfranz in 1571. Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar in such places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz, and Azazo. Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established his political seat there. Gondar became glorious during the first three rulers Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82), and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).  Major Developments of these periods: The restoration of the Orthodox Church as the state religion, The establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni, The establishment of a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem by Yohannes I and his councils, and Land reform the introduction of land measurement,taxes, customs, and revision of the Fetha Negest by Iyasu I. Iyasu the Great was assassinated and this led to political instability and the poisoning of the reigning emperors. 1706-1721five reigning kings including Iyasu were assassinated/poisoned  Cont’d… Tekle-Haymanot, the son of Iyasu the Great, was appointed in 1706 but was also assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708. Tewoflos was again killed by Yostos in 1711, who was also poisoned and replaced by Dawit III, again poisoned and replaced by Bakafa in 1721. Bakafa, with the support of his wife- Etege Mentewab, tried to restore stability but was unsuccessful since he was incapacitated in 1728. The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement of the Oromo in Imperial politics and the army as will be discussed shortly.  Cont’d… From 1728 to 1768, Mentewab and her brother, Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732-1767), dominated the Gondarine court politics. Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69). After his death in 1767, Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito of Wollo, and invited Mikael Sehul of Tigray who was politically shrewd and militarily powerful. Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation but refused to return to Tigray although demanded by Iyoas. This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old man Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son Takla-Haymanot II (1769-77) in power. This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).  B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art, and crafts for more than two centuries. In many instances, it repeated the Aksumite and the Lalibella achievements in the areas of architecture, painting, literature, trade, and urbanization. 5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855) The period when actual political power was in the hands of different regional lords. Covers the period from the assassination of Iyoas in 1769 to the coming to power of Tewodros II in 1855. Ras Michael Sehul became a kingmaker, however, failed short of popularity among the mass due to his evility. Then coalition of armed forces from Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo fought and defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771. After his defeat, there was relative stability but several regional lords emerged where the main centers were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam, and Shewa.  Cont’d… This time, the “Yejju dynasty”, which was founded by Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) in 1786, was the leading power with the center at Debre-tabor. The Yejju Dynasty reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803- 1825) who fought with Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame. In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle- Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827. Zemene Mesafint was ended by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of battles that lasted from the 1840s to 1855.  Major features of Zemene-Mesafint Absence of effective central government; The growing power and influence of the regional warlords; The domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia; Rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the position of king-maker; Establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political interests; Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes; Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “closed-door” policy. Developments in terms of literature, arts, architecture  UNIT SIX INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800- 1941  Introduction Covers the period from the early 19th century to 1941 Begins with the period 1800 when most states in the southern half emerged. The continuous and complex interactions and external relations that shaped the region’s modern history are also covered. 6.1. The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn 6.1.1. Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia  A. South-Central Peoples and States Politically autonomous and semi-autonomous states Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, and Gurage Largely agrarian in economy Local merchants participate in local trade and sometimes the long-distance trade which passes through this territory Among these, the Gurage land was an important market center and political entity where important trade centers such as Soddo and Aymallel were located. Gurage had its own political organization led by Abegaz or Azmach political and military title.  Cont’d… Qebena emerged as an impo