History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist. 102) PDF

HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (Hist. 102) FOR STUDENTS OF HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS  UNIT ONE The purpose of the course is to help students: ✓ Understand a history of Ethiopia and the Horn from ancient times to 1995 as a base for shaping and bettering the fu...

HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (Hist. 102) FOR STUDENTS OF HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS  UNIT ONE The purpose of the course is to help students: ✓ Understand a history of Ethiopia and the Horn from ancient times to 1995 as a base for shaping and bettering the future. The module generally focuses on: ✓ Major topics in the history of Ethiopia and the Horn including social, cultural, economic, and political developments and their interrelations. ✓ The contents of the module: consider the chronology and thematic relations of events in time and space.  The units of the module The module is divided into seven units: The first unit: ✓ defines history, describes why history is important, how history is studied The second unit explains ✓ peoples and cultures,human evolution, Neolithic Revolution and Settlement patterns, as well as religion and religious processes. The third unit: ✓ describes, states, external contacts, economic formations and cultural achievements in terms of architecture, writing, calendar, Unit Four treats: ✓ political developments,evangelization and religious movements, trade and external relations ✓ how the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates evolved in the region and their interactions  About the Module Unit Five discusses, ✓ a history of the region from the early 16thc to the end of the 18thc centuries. ✓ foreign interventions, religious controversies, population movements, ✓ major conditions and achievements of the Gondarine period, and the Zemene -Mesafint (Era of Princes) ✓ The social, cultural, economic, and political experiences in19thc and the early 20thc ✓ Historical processes of state formation and power rivalry, ✓ trade, external relations, foreign threats and major battles, ✓ centralization and modernization attempts, Unit 6 Discusses ✓ period of liberation from Italy (1941) to the ratification of (1995) Constitution ✓ consolidation of Imperial Power and socio-economic conditions, ✓ Oppositions, national questions, reforms, and political developments. Unit 7: ✓Internal developments and external relations, 1941-1995 ✓Post 1941 ✓The Derg regime (1974-1991) ✓Transitional government  UNIT ONE INTRODUCTION (3 hours) The Nature and Uses of History This unit introduces , ✓the nature of history, ✓historiography, ✓the diverse histories of Ethiopia and the Horn ✓Interactions between societies ✓popular and academic conceptions of history ✓why and how of studying history and trends in historical writing  What is history? History is a systematic study and organized knowledge of the past. The purpose of historical study: is not simply to produce a mere list of chronological events about the deeds of the dead but to find patterns and establish meaning through the rigorous study and interpretation of surviving records. Historiography: on the other hand, refers to the history of history; it explores changes in historical interpretations through time.  A.Nature of History The term history derived from the Greek word Istoria, means “inquiry” or “an account of one’s inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians, Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C), who is often held to be the “father of history.” In ordinary usage, history means: All the things that have happened in the human past. The past signifies/indicates events, which have taken place and the facts of the past, which are kept in writing. Historians apply their expertise (knowledge and skill) to surviving records and write history in the form of accounts/ books of the past. Academically, history can be defined as: ✓ An organized and systematic study of the past. ✓ The study involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. ✓ What actually happened in the past is almost infinite. ✓ Therefore, Historians select which topics and problems they wish to study, as do natural scientists. The major concern of history is, The study of human society and its interaction with the natural environment, History is conventionally divided into ancient, medieval and modern history. This is called periodization in history; one of the key characteristics of the discipline. History study changes and continuities in the past B. Uses of History 1. History Helps Better Understand the Present History is storehouse of information available for the examination and analysis of how people behaved and acted in the past. Helps to develop reasoning and criticism Helps to know noble characters, heros, nabole personalities, Guides government in reform and revolutions Enable to understand problems that face humanity and society the past. Helps to know understand, give balanced and in-depth understanding of many current world situations. 2. History Provides a Sense of Identity Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and where we fit in the world. As memory is to the individual, history is to the society. without memory it is difficult in relating to others and in taking intelligent decisions. It is only through sense of history that communities define their identity, orient them, and understand their relationships with the past and with other societies. 3. History Provides the Basic Background for Other Disciplines ✓Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as literature, art, philosophy, religion, sociology, political science, anthropology, economics, etc. 4. History Teaches Critical Skills Helps to develop key research skills like, how to find and evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence and present clearly in writing. Helps develop analytical/logical/investigative and communication skills that are highly usable in other academic pursuits. Helps to make informed decisions in our day-to-day life. 5. History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open- Mindedness ✓ Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right and proper. ✓ Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country, which contributes to rid ourselves of some of our inherent cultural provincialism. ✓ By studying the past, students of history acquire broad perspectives that give them the range and flexibility required in many life situations. ✓ It maximizes flexibility and minimizes rigidity 6. History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination ✓ Helps to explore the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives, ✓ Admire a sense of aesthetic/beauty/artistic and humanistic values removed from present-day utility. ✓ Only through studying history we can grasp how and why things change, ✓ Only through history we can understand what elements of a society persist despite change.  Just as history can be useful, it can also be abused. Such abuses come mainly from deliberate manipulation of the past to fit current political agenda. In such cases, history is written backwards. That is, the past is described and interpreted to justify the present. personal biases are not always avoidable, a historian is different from a propagandist Historians care to documents, judgment and assertions so that they can be subjected to independent and external verification/proof.  Sources and Methods of Historical Study Historians are not creative writers like novelists. the work of historians must be supported by evidence arising from sources. Sources are instruments that bring to life what appear to have been dead. Where there are no sources, there is no history. Historical sources are classified into two: Primary and Secondary. Primary sources: Surviving traces of the past available to us in the present. Original or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and in space.  Historical Sources… Examples of primary sources are: manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters, minutes, court records and administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials, and artifacts such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings.  Historical Sources… ✓ Secondary sources: published accounts about past events. ✓ They are written long after the event has occurred. ✓ Providing an interpretation of ✓ What happened, ✓ Why it happened, ✓ Where it happend and ✓ How it happened, Examples of secondary sources: ✓ Articles, books, journal article, textbooks, biographies, and published stories or movies about historical events. ✓ Nevertheless, no history work can be taken as final, as new sources keep coming to light. ✓ New sources make possible new historical interpretations or entirely new historical reconstructions and deconstruction Oral data: Oral sources are especially valuable to study and document the history of non-literate societies. fill missing gaps and corroborate written words. transmitted information from generation to generation through words /folk songs and folk sayings. This type of oral data is called oral tradition. People can also provide oral testimonies or personal recollections/memories/memoires/autobiographies of lived experience. Such source material is known as oral history. historians use a combination of the sources described above.  Historical sources… whatever the source of information-primary or secondary, written or oral the data should be subjected to: Critical evaluation before used as evidence. Primary sources have to be verified/substantiated for their originality and authenticity because sometimes primary sources like letters may be forged. Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability /trustworthiness of their reconstructions. Oral data may lose its originality and authenticity due to distortion through time.  Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn Historiography can be defined as: ✓ the history of historical writing, ✓ how knowledge of the past is obtained and transmitted. ✓ The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides (c.455-400 B.C.E.) ✓ The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese during the Han dynasty Sima Qian (145–86 BC). ✓ History emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the nineteenth century (1950s)first in Europe and then the US. ✓ The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues established history as an independent discipline in Berlin with its own set of methods and concepts ✓ Ranke is named as the “father of modern historiography.” He introduced the scientific study of the past ✓ Historians collect evidence of past events, evaluate that evidence, and present a meaningful discussion of the subject.  Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn in the past hundred years Earlier forms of historiography (historical writing) and sources 1.Periplus of the Erythraean sea /red Sea: means, voyage/a trip. The earliest known reference on history of Ethiopia and the Horn written in the first century A.D by an anonymous/unidentified author. 2.Christian Topography: composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes (merchant and travller) a Greek sailor, in the 6thc A.D. this document describing Aksum’s trade, campaigns on both sides of the sea. He came up with the idea that say the world is flat 3. Manuscripts found in Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha and Haiq Istifanos monastery of present day Wollo in the 13thc A.D. The value of manuscripts is essentially religious. Yet, for historians, they have the benefit of providing insights into the country’s past. For example, the manuscript cited above contains the list of medieval kings and their history in brief. 4.Christian hagiographies: biographies of saints or Venerated persons ✓ The largest groups of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history are hagiographies originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church written in Ge’ez. ✓ The main function of hagiographies is enhancing the prestige/respect of saints. Yet other related anecdotes/stories are also introduced, and often discussed in detail such as the development of the church and the state including territorial conquests by reigning monarchs. 5.Muslim Hagiographical Tradition: The good example is the hagiography’s of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wollo, in the late 19thc Musilim hagiographical tradition discusses, ✓ the saint’s life, ✓ the development of indigenous Islam and ✓ contacts between the region’s Muslim community and the outside world 6.Chronicles: ✓a historical account of events real or imagined told in chronological order indigenous tradition of history writing. Chronicles in Ge’ez tongue first appeared in the 14thc and in Amharic into the early 20thc. scribes/copyists or clergymen were assigned by Kings to courts to write the daily activities Copyists were Given church training and calligraphic skills. The earliest and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion (1314 -1344)and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu respectively. Chronicles incorporate: both legends and facts, monarch’s genealogy, upbringing military exploits, piety/ the quality being religious. Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework, explain historical events mainly in religious terms; offer little on social and economic developments chronicles can provide us with a glimpse into the character and lives of kings, their preoccupations relations with subordinate officials and, the evolution of the Ethiopian state and society. 7.Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast For example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture, language and import-export trade in east African coast in the 10th and in 14thc respectively. For the 16th and 17thc we have two documents composed by Yemeni writers who were eyewitnesses 1. Futuh al Habesha composed by Shihab al-Din, on the war of Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in the sixteenth century. major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of Ethiopia, although the discussion abruptly ends in 1535. 2. Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledas (r. 1632-67). 8.Abba Bahrey’s Geez script/handwritten: appeared in the 16thc (1593) written on Oromo and provides us with first-hand information about the Oromo population movement including the Gadaa System. 9. European Missionaries And Travelers: From the early 16th and 17thc missionaries (Catholics and Protestants) came to the country the missionaries’ sources provide us with valuable information on: – religious and political developments within Ethiopia, – and the country’s foreign relations. An example of such account is The Prester John of the Indies, composed by a Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez who accompanied the Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520. A legendary Christian patriarch first imagined to reside in centeral Asia/India. Then Mongols lastly Ethiopia. The story began in 12thc (1165) 10.Travel documents: One example of travel documents is James Bruce’s Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile. Like other sources, however, both the missionaries and travelers’ materials can only be used with considerable reservations and with care for they are socially and politically biased. 11. Foreign Writers: One of these figures was a German, Hiob Ludolf (1624- 1704). the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the 17th century. He wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated into English as A New History of Ethiopia). Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country’s history largely based on information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) who was in Europe at that time. August Dillman: published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history in the 19thc. Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of objectivity in his historical research endeavors. 12.Ethiopian writers: This group made conscious efforts to distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for adulatory/flattering tone when writing about monarchs. The earliest writers include: 1. Aleqa Taye Gebre- Mariam, 2. Aleqa Asme Giorgis and 3. Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi. 4. Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and 5. Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn joined them. Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics like social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis Taye and Fisseha-Giorgis wrote books on the history of Ethiopia while Asme produced a similar work on the Oromo people.  Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, Gebre-Hiwot wrote Atse Menilekna Ityopia and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader The most prolific/productive writer Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie published four major works 1. Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema), 2. Wazema (Eve), 3. Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and 4. Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia). Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and methodological sophistication in their works. 13.The period of Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early experiment in modern history writing and publications. After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians who came after him. Tekle-Tsadik has published about eight historical works. Tekle-Tsadik made better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors. Yilma Deressa: Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen The book addresses the Oromo population movement and the wars between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim sultanates as its main subjects.  Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel: wrote Zikre Neger. Zikre Neger is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems and taxation. Gebre-Wold Engidawork: wrote on land tenure. Dejazmach Kebede Tesema: Kebede wrote his memoir of the imperial period, published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C. 14.The 1960s: Was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in this period that history emerged as an academic discipline and pursuit of historical studies as a full-time occupation began with the opening of the Department of History in 1963 at the then Haile Selassie I University (HSIU). The production of BA theses began towards the end of the decade. The Department launched its MA and PhD programs in 1979 and 1990 respectively. Since then researches by faculty (both Ethiopians and expatriates) and students have been produced on various topics. 15. The Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) founded in 1963. home of professional historiography of Ethiopia. Richard Pankhurst, the first Director and founding member published authored or co-authored twenty- two books and produced several hundred articles on Ethiopia. the IES has been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of historical research. The Institute’s library contains literary works of diverse disciplines The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon. The decolonization of African historiography required new methodological approach (tools of investigation)  The Geographical Context The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa, which now contains the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. people across the region are remarkably diverse: they speak a vast number of different languages, profess to many distinct religions, live in a variety types of dwellings, and engage in a wide range of economic activities. peoples of the region were never isolated; they interacted throughout history from various locations. share common past. The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts with others through: commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, Yet, the evolution of human history owed much to geographical factors notably location, landforms, resource endowment, climate and drainage systems which continue to impact, as incentives and deterrents, the movement of people and goods in the region.  Ethiopia and the Horn lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean , frontiers of Sudan and Kenya on the other. Since early times, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked Northeast Africa to the Eastern Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East, India, and the Far East. Another element of geography factor that had profound impact on human history is drainage system. Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage systems. These are 1. the Nile River, 2. Gibe/Omo–Gojeb, 3. Genale/Jubba-Shebele, 4. the Awash River, and 5. the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lake systems.  UNIT TWO: PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN The Region of Ethiopia and the Horn is ✓ The cradle of humankind and early civilizations including: food production, making tools and religion took place ✓ These developments contributed to the social evolutions, economic formations, and Socio-cultural and political settings ✓ The region is home to: diverse peoples, cultures (languages, religion, customs…) and economic activities.  2.1. Human Evolution Evolution Time span 1 Human evolution had been formed Happened about (circa/c.) through gradual natural process 4. 5 bil. years before present (B. P.) 2 The earliest life came into being b/n3 and 1 billion years B. P. 3 Blue green algae, small plants, emerged at c. 800 million fishes, birds and other small beings years B. P. 4 Primates/monkey/ape branched 200-170 million years B. P. of placental mammal stream developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) while others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).  Archeological evidences of biological and cultural evolution 1 Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007. 2 Ardipithicus dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP was discovered in Middle ramiduskadabba Awash. 3 Ardipithicus ramidus dated 4. 2 million B.P. was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994. 4 Australopithecines 3.6 million years B. P. uncovered at Belohdelie in Middle Awash. 5 Australopithecusafarensis/ 3.3 million years B.P discovered at Dikika, Mille, Selam Afar in 2000. 6 Australopithecus 3.18 million years B. P.) bipedal female was afarnesis(Lucy/Dinkines discovered at Hadar in h, Afar in 1974 A. D. 40% complete body parts, weight weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters Australopithecus anamensis discovered around Lake Turkana. Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in dated to 2.5 million years was discovered at Afar language) B.P Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999. Genus Homo, whose mind was emerged 2-2.5 miil years B.P. developed A partial skull of a fossil termed as dated 1.9 mil years B. found in the Lower Homo habilis, Latin terms,"Homo" P Omo. (human being) Habilis" (skillful use of hands), Homo erectus (walking upright, Homo dated 1. 6 million Melka Kunture, erectus seems to have originated in years B. P.) Konso Gardula and Africa Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain size. Archaic/old Homo sapiens dated 400, 000 years discovered in Middle (knowledgeable human being, B.P.) Awash. named Bodo with brain size of 1300- 1400cc was Homo sapiens 100, 000 yrs B.P.), re- were discovered at; dated to 195, 000 Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo  Cultural Evolution Cultura Evolution was happened b/c technological changes that led to socio-economic transformation on human life. Cultural evolution passed through 3 steps: 1. Stone Age, 2. Bronze Age and 3. Iron Age Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings. By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be grouped in to: 1. Mode I (Olduwan, which was named based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania), 2. Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul, France) and 3. Mode III (Sangoon).  The Mode I stone tools are mainly characterized by: crude and mono-facial styles, produced by the direct percussion /hitting. Mode II stone tools produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features. Mode III stone tools are characterized by flexible and finest produced by the use of obsidian Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar.  Homo erectus produced: Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7.million years B.P, invented fire and started burial practice. Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963. Homosapiens produced: Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000 years B. P. Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000 B. P. Other vital sites such as : Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have offered noteworthy information about Stone Age communities.  The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods. 1. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.) was the period when human being developed language, Shelter in cave, using stone, bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing. Sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of fauna, and children and females as gatherers of flora. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.) was transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New Stone Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P).  2.2. Neolithic Revolution During the Neolithic period Human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life. Changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals. grow plants yielded seeds that were edible in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.  Neolithic Revolution… The domestication of enset plant (Enseteedule) reduced shifting cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion. The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures and animal remains in sites like Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana.  Stone tools, paintings of domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar. Evidence for domesticated cattle comes from around Lake Basaqa near Matahara. Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan, Cyrenaica in Libya Futajalon West Africa were among known places of domestication of animals like Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle that in due course expanded to Ethiopia and the Horn.  2.3. The Peopling of the Region 2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn. Language of Ethiopia and the Horn are divided into two major language super families: Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into 1. Northern cushatic: Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan. 2. Central cushatic: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen. Eastern Cushatic: this includes diversified linguistic groups like  Cushatic… 1. Afar, 11.Kambata, Southern 2. Ale, 12.Konso, Cushatic: 3. Arbore, 13.Libido, 1. Dhalo in 4. Baiso, 14.Mosiye, Kenya and 5. Burji, 15.Oromo, 2. Nbugua in Tanzania. 6. Darashe, 16.Saho, 7. Dasanech, 17.Sidama, 8. Gedeo, 18.Somali, 9. Hadiya, 19.Tambaro, 10.Halaba, 20.Tsemai, etc.  Semitic: divided into two: North Semitic: Ge’ez and Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea- Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray). South semetic: is further divided into two Transverse: Amahara, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Walane And Zay Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered)  Omotic 1. Anfillo, 15. Gayil, 29. Sezo, 2. Ari, 16. Gofa, 30. Shekkacho, 3. Bambasi, 17. Hamer, 31. Sheko, 4. Banna, 18. Hozo, 32. Wolayta, 5. Basketo, 19. Kachama- 33. Yem, 6. Bench, 20. Ganjule, 34. Zayse etc. 7. Boro-Shinasha, 21. Karo, 8. Chara, 22. Keficho, Among its groups, 9. Dawuro, 23. Konta, Ometo includes 10. Dime, 24. Korete, Wolayta and Gamo while main 11. Dizi, 25. Male, Gonga is Keficho. 12. Dorze, 26. Melo, 13. Gamo, 27. Nayi, 14. Ganza, 28. Oyda,  B. Nilo-Saharan: 1. Anywa, 11.Murle, 2. Berta, 12.Mursi, 3. Gumuz, 13.Nara, 4. Kacipo-Balesi, 14.Nu’er, 5. Komo, 15.Nyangatom, 6. Kunama, 16.Opo, 7. Kwama, 17.Shabo, 8. Kwegu, 18. Suri and Uduk. 9. Majang, 10.Mi'en,  Language classification Language is not remain static. Factors like population movements, warfare, trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have resulted in intense linguistic processes that forced languages to be affected. some languages died out or have been in danger of extinction  2.3.2. Settlement Patterns A settlement pattern is the distribution of peoples across the landscape, In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse. Some people inhabited highlands and others lowlands. Based on historical linguistic and history of inter- peoples relations, studies indicate that: Environmental, socio-economic, and political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of peoples in the region.  Settlement Patterns… the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different directions. the Cushites the largest linguistic group spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania. The Semites are the second majority people next to the Cushites. Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin.  the Nilotic are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern Omo. The latter are identified as the Karamojo cluster living around Turkana Lake along Ethio- Kenyan border.  2.3.3. Economic Formations The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two interdependent modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism. 1. pastoral economy Camel, goat, and cattle has been the most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo. Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River, the Somali have owed a great deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba) Rivers. 2.Sedentary agriculture: started and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups practiced Metallurgy, weaving and other crafts were also practiced.  2.4. Religion and Religious Processes 2.4.1. Indigenous Religion includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, native to the region and have been followed by the local people A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is – belief in one Supreme Being, but – special powers are attributed to natural phenomena, considered sacred. Spiritual functionaries officiated/celebrated over rituals, propitiate/make peace/ divinities/religion, and are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between the society and spirits.  Some major indigenous religious groups are: Waqeffanna of the Oromo. Based on: the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa. Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana. The major spirits in Waaqeffaanna include ✓ Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit), ✓ Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit), ✓ Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity/purity spirit), ✓ Balas (victory spirit), ✓ Chato/Dora (wild animals defender), ✓ Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit), ✓ Jaricha (peace spirit), ✓ Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc.  There is also a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost called Ekera in the surrounding of his/her abode before death, or his/her cemetery/graveyard (Hujuba). In the Autumn and Spring seasons every year at the edge of river and top of mountain respectively, there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha besides New Year (Birbo) rite/ritual. Waaqeffannaa has its own Revered experts known as: Qallu (male) Qallitti (female) Qallu ritual house is called Galma located on hilltop  On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy at which Qallu or Qallitti is possessed by Ayyana so that s/he can interpret mysteries. Senior Qallu (Abba Muda or anointment father)was functional until 1900 Abba Muda had turban/headwear called surri rufa of tri-colors: black at top indicates pre-active life, red at center active (luba) and white at bottom represents post-active life respectively. Hadiya: the Supreme Being is known as Waa, exist, before everything (hundam issancho) or created world (qoccancho) and represented by elincho (sun) and agana (moon). Spirits like ✓ Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard), Hausula, Qedane and Warriqa attracted prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo mountains chosen by Anjancho and Jaramanjcho. One of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed to have the power to send rain in drought. Fandanano (sing. Fandancho) practice is believed to be introduced by either spiritual leaders, Itto and Albaja from Bimado clan, or Boyamo, father of five Hadiya clans, and was largely followed by inhabitants of Boshana, Misha etc. The Kambata Have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and Religious officials known as Magnancho. Gedeo Have the Supreme Being called Mageno and had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro. The Konso Religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh. The Gojjam Agaw Used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God) The Gurage ▪ have Waq/Goita (supreme deity), Bozha (thunder God) and Damwamwit (health Goddess). The Gurage and the Yem had a common deity known as Abba at Enar (Henar). The Yem Worshipped Ha’o (Sky God). So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it was in charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity). Religious functions were performed through messengers in each village called Magos. The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.  The Wolayta’s God called Tosa and spirit Ayyana including ✓ Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit), ✓ Sawuna (justice spirit), ✓ Wombo (rain spirit), ✓ Micho (goat spirit), ✓ Nago (sheep spirit), ✓ Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit), ✓ Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo spirit) etc. Dufuwa (grave) was believed to be abode of Moytiliya.  The Wolayta also had the practice of Chaganna (prohibited days to work) to protect from disaster. They also chose and kept dark brown heifer called Beka (Beqabe) or Baqa Potilliya (Literally, ritual cattle) as birthday fate. If they made error in respecting this custom, they would anoint their bodies with a leaf called Aydameta (ground red pepper) as repentance/regret. Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or Kera Eza Keta (ritual house). The Keficho Their Supreme Being is called Yero; spirit Eqo a person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or eke-nayo. Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno and its host is called dochi-nayo or Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno (including Arito and Wudia Riti), with residence at Adio. Harvest spirit is called Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo. Earth and area spirits are known as Showe-kollo and Dude-baro respectively. There are also local spirits like damochechi of Channa, yaferochi of Sharada and wogidochi of Adio as well as gepetato or king of hill identified by Yetecho clan as landowner. Members of the Dugo clan led spiritual services.  The Boro-Shinasha super natural power called Iqa, Gure Shuka -for preservation of their locality through slaughtering animals by calling the name of God being at the tip of the mountains. Shode De’na- praying and slaughtering when unexpected disease happens. Marrowa Shuka- slaughtering for children to grow without disease and to prevent children from evil spirits attack; for wealth; The rituals are led by recognized elders, whose pray and bless are trusted to reach God among the three clans: Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa.  The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), believe in the coming of: God through rain, lightning and thunder, rainbow is necklace/rop of God. Sun and moon as well as other entities are also manifestation or sign of God. WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder. The Nuer believe that when a person dies, flesh is committed to earth life goes back to Kuoth  In general, the practices and beliefs of Indiginous religion are fused/united with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism/ combination of different belifes 2.4.2. Judaism Judism began to be clearly noticed in the 4th century AD, The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which are generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic Judaism). Many of the Bete-Israel accounts Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus/migration (1400-1200 B.C.). Alternative timelines include perhaps the later crises in Judea, e.g., split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile.  Others say yhey came to Ethiopia with Minilik first son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Azeb,Makeda or queen Sheba. Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D. Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants intermarried with the Agaws. Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been isolated from mainstream Jewish for at least a millennium. The Jewish developed and lived for centuries in northern and northwestern Ethiopia. 2.4.3. Christianity Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360), who dropped pre-Christian gods like ✓ Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god), Arwe (serpent-python god), ✓ Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity. Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius (Fremnatos). Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of EOC Consecration/blessings of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch. Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later part of fifth century,  Origin Church/M Location of the Church The Nine onastery Saints Name Abuna Aregawwi Rome Debre Eastern Tigray (Abba Za Mika’el) Damo Abuna Isaq (Abba Rome Debre Medera (East of Adwa ) Gerima) Gerima Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Asbo (North East of Aksum) Pentelwon Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of Aksum) Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Biheza (Northeast of Aksum) Haleluya Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre West of Medera Gubba Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre North of Aksum Qonasel Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Ger’alta Yima’ata  The saints, translated Bible and other religious books into Geez. Then expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum during the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches and monasteries were constructed. These include Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, ✓ Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea; ✓ Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, ✓ Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam; ✓ Debra-Libanos in Shewa, ✓ Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar. These churches and monasteries are not merely religious centers, but served through the ages as repositories/sources of ancient manuscripts and precious objects of art. The Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within EOC As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of treaties concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities. The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active. Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries and their major leaders were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.  Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win confidence of local people. ✓They translated spiritual books into vernaculars. ✓They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used them in new versions as equivalent to God. Established Village schools medical facilities. All these attracted a large number of followers. Eventually, continuous and systematic indoctrinations seem to have resulted in grafting of new teaching on indigenous religion. 2.4.4. Islam When Prophet Mohammed started the teaching of Islam in Mecca in 610 AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers. Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early followers including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum. The first group of refuges was led by Jafar Abu Talib. In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are suffering." The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28.  Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the refugees, but the king did not comply/obey. Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refuge with me.” Islam spread to the Horn of Africa through peaceful ways including trade. Aross Dahlak (Alalay) and the Red Sea by the beginning of 8th c In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the islands developed a sultanate. In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast. It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior,  the port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden served as an important gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly in to the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe. Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint of medieval period, played very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar shrine. Islam was introduced into Somali territories in 8th century A. D. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of local Muslims.  UNIT THREE POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE 19th Century (6 hours) Introduction From ancient times to the end of the 13th century, societies in Ethiopia and the Horn underwent: Political, economic, social and cultural changes. One remarkable change in the period was the evolution of states Agriculture and trade contributed to the evolution of states, religions shaped the socio-cultural setup of the states Socio-cultural achievements of the period were: Architecture, writing, calendar, numerals etc. external relations 3.1. Emergence of States One important factor for the emergence of states were: the beginning of sedentary agriculture the growth of trade ox-drawn plough Rises of artisans who able to specialize in the production of items. intermediaries (traders) also began to buy the products of both to take to predetermined places or markets for exchange. expansion of agriculture gave rise to the class differentiation.  What is state? State refers to: an autonomous political unit having, 1. population, 2. defined territory, 3. sovereignty and 4. government with the power to decree and enforce laws. State was the outcome of: regular cultural process. The first states were: theocratic states and led by priests (shaman) maintained the social and religious affairs the priests were gradually replaced by chiefs. chiefs began collecting regular and compulsory tributes known as protection payments with which they maintained themselves; their supporters chiefly the army, the bureaucracy and other followers.  3.2. Ancient States 3.2.1. North and Northeast A. Punt the earliest recorded state The evidence on Punt comes from: Egyptian hieroglyphic writings, tell of a series of naval expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt. Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent expedition to collect: myrrh/ Etan ebony/hard tree and electrum (gold and silver alloy). dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt. The best described and illustrated was by the famous Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.),  The expedition was able to return collecting frank incense, cinnamon/tree sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc. Hatshepsut presented some parts of the items to her god, Amun. Because of the ritual importance of their exports the Puntites were also known as, Khebis of the Ta Netjeru (divine or ghosts land).  Itemes Exported to Egypt from Punt land were: Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and medicinal plants Itemes imported from Egypt to Punt land were: axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets/jewelries  Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact location of Punt. The varieties of incense and myrrh mentioned in the writings have suggested northern or northeastern Somalia to some scholars Northern Ethiopia because of the reference to gold, ebony and monkeys. Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Gardafui. B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in N. Ethiopia and Eritrea a center a little to the south of Aksum. Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the fifth century BC shows that he used politico-religious title known as Mukarib. Damat had Various gods and goddesses like: Almouqah (principal god), Astater (Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time. There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia. The major ones are:  Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers. It probably emerged around 1, 000 BC as a small emporium/trade center where South Arabian merchants and their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and other commodities coming from the interior. The period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about 750 to 500 B.C. Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry still standing temple/place of worship and inscriptions indicate Yeha’s glory.  Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that are inscribed in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings representing herds of cattle have been excavated. Addi-Seglemeni: located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab is fetched and the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered. There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc. C. The Aksumite State The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200- 100 B.C. Initially, its power was limited to a relatively small area Gradually, however, it expanded to include large territories in all directions. In its heyday, – Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west and – from the northern most corner of Eritrea and possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa. According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis was the major port of Aksum. The long distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts on the Red Sea coast passed inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara and even further west across Takaze River.  The document also mentioned ports of Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca. The major items of export of the Aksumite state were: natural products such as: ivory, myrrh/karbe emerald, frankincense spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some curiosity animals like apes.  Trade relations with: Egypt, India, Roman Empire, and Persia; Imports: Glassware/cup and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from Roman Empire and Syria. Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to communicate in Greek language, Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world. Had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia Minor). The Adulis inscription written in Greek about an unknown king, which eventually was published in Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book, the Christian Topography, describes commercial activities of the Red Sea areas.  mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and Sasu, most probably in Beni Shangul and Blue Nile. Trade items: cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to exchange for gold. bargain through signs and gestures, exchange was done without one side seeing the other. silent trade. Aksumite kings had contacts with the outside world like: South Arabian region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture. involved conflicts between the two regions. peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula, in present day Yemen, had difficulties in defending themselves against the army of the Aksumite king, Gadarat. From the 3rd to 7th century, Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II,etc. minted and issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local transactions. Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world Roman Empire, Persia, China  Aksum was a major naval and trading power from the 1st to the 7th centuries. Aksumite ships were the main means of transporting goods. with sufficient sources of timber for ship building and in those days, the technology for it existed in Adulis. had a large fleet of ships, used for both trade and wars across the Red Sea. Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar/ancient Arabiyaa and Saba, but the local prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many Christians. Dhu Nuwas was defeatedand Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor of Arabia that continued until 570 A. D. Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-48) who built church at Zur Amba in Gayint. It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns.  Aksum begun to decline since the late 7 th c because of: Internal and external challenges, Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and plague infestation started to weaken it. the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702, the international lifeline of the state was cut. The whole network of Aksumite international trade came under the control of rising and expanding Arab Muslims, and isolated from its old commercial and diplomatic partners. economical decline led to the decline of its political and military power The recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state. In civilization, Aksum had a profound impact upon the peoples of the Horn of Africa and beyond, on its successors i. e. the Zagwe, ‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the Gondarine period etc Sub-Saharan Africa’s only surviving indigenous script and calendar EOC hymns and chants, paintings etc; diversified ceramic and lithic tools, urbanization sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele, rock-hewn churches…) developed complex administrative and governance system, agricultural system including irrigation etc.  D. Zagwe Dynasty (C. 1150 to 1270). After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in the territory of the Agaw, Agaw elites got opportunity to take part in Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and functionaries/officials for at least four centuries. took over the state administration. the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od. Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control of power. Merra-Tekle-Haimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc. the Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).  The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from the ancient Aksumite kingdom in the north down to northern Shewa in the south; the Lake Tana region and the northern part of what is today Gojjam in the west. The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact. Trade. Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region. The most important export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, various types of drags and newly minted coins were imported. Paintings: the Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of some of religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez.  The construction of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches: 1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel. 2. Semi-hewn: with detailed interior decoration and partial decoration outside. not totally separated from surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still attached to rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.  3. Monolithic: detailed decoration inside including roof and outside. They are completely separated (carved out) from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem. Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem = is the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis = is the most finely built in the shape of the cross. Lalibela: wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, aimed to avoid difficulties, which Ethiopian Christians encountered in journey to Holy Lands at least once in their lifetime. This was done by constructing churches based on the model of Holy Lands in Israel.  Why Zagwe Dynasty came to end? due to internal problems of royal succession and oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum that considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba. The legend: based on a book known as Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings) that was translated from Coptic to Arabic and then into Ge’ez. Based on the legend, the power claimants contend that “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was “usurped” by the Zagwes. Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), claimed decent from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od, organized his forces being assisted by the ecclesiastical/Church hierarchy and engaged the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek in battle. Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state power contending the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty. 3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States 3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat A. Bizamo: located on the southern bend of Abay Rive around the current Wambara area. founded in the eighth century and had early connections with Damot. B. Damot: located south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana west of Awash and east of Didessa. Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the 13th c. C. Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso) In the 9th century, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign into Enarya, accompanied by Orthodox Christian priests carrying arks of covenant (tabots). Enarya kingship was a divine one: the king (Hinnare-Tato) was secluded and considered as sacred. He/the king communicated visitors through an intermediary, AfeBusho. The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha (king's spokesman) Atche-rasha (royal treasurer). The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi. D. Gafat: Lies south of Abay (Blue Nile). It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Adere and the Gurage. It is not clear whether the Gafat formed a “state” or not, Gafat was paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates since the beginning of the 8th c, Muslim communities and states had been established at many locations especially along the main trade routes from Zeila to central Ethiopia. These states include: A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa. B. Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the 11th century. C. Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast. D. Bali: established around Wabi-Shebelle River and extended southwards to the Gannale Dirre River. One of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces. E. Ifat: located in the adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash. established by Umar Walasma, who came from Arabia between 1271 and 1285. Umar Walaasimaa intervened between quarrelsome Makzumite princes Dil-Marrah and Dil-Gamis, weakened and annexed the sultanate of Shewa. F. Others: mutually independent states like: Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim were established and flourished. 3.3. External Contacts Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with: Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. with the Mediterranean world or the Greco- Roman World. South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000 B.C. East Roman or Byzantine Empire Jerusalem and other Holy places in the Middle East had begun at the end of the first millennium AD. Around the middle of the 12th c, a myth about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John began to circulate in Europe. The Legend Of Prester Jhon when the balance of the crusade/religiously motivated war fought over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of the Middle East in favor of the latter. In 1165, a letter addressed to European kings, thought to be sent by the Prester John appeared in Europe the enormous power of the Prester John. the country of Prester John was not known to Europe for over a century. However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the land of Prester John Then, they began to search for the location of the Kingdom and to make an alliance with it. 3.4. Economic Formations Agriculture and Land Tenure System ancient states' economy in highland areas was plough agriculture technology of irrigation also contributed to the growth of agricultural production. The people used diverse soil fertility enhancement strategies like: manuring, compost and spreading residues’ ashes crop rotation, intercropping and contour plowing  The most ancient system of land holding were: the communal land tenure system (group right on land). Peasants in the north had rist rights or communal birthright to land It is inherited from generation to generation All the subjects of the state had the rist rights. The rist owners were known as bale-rist. they paid tributes to the state and all land belonged to the state theoretically. Tribute collectors had gult right over the areas and populations they administered on behalf of the central government. Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce. The tribute collected by bale-gults, partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest were sent to the imperial center. Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as famous well-placed officials used to transfer their position to their offspring. B. Handicraft Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period. Like: metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewellery, basketry and others. Metal workers produced spears’ points, swords , javelins, bows, arrows, traps, slings, shields, knives, axes, sickles, hoes, ploughshares, spades, machetes, hatchets, iron tripods, ornaments etc. Carpenters engaged in carving wood implements like doors, windows, stools, chairs, tables, beds, headrests, mortars, bowls, beams, yoke, stilt, coffins etc Potters produced ceramic utensils like saucepan/pot, ovens, jar, pot, kettle, cooking tripod, plates, granary etc. Tanners produced leather tools used for bed, bed cover, saddles, harness, ropes, footwear, prayer mats, sacks, honey and butter container, drinking cup and clothes until replaced by weavers’ cotton dresses. However, except the carpenters and masons in some cases, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized. C. Trade Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states that obtained considerable income from both internal and international trade. wide ranging contacts in various directions within the region itself and with merchants coming to the area across the international water bodies. The regular flow of trade was so vital to the states in that one of their major concerns was to protect the trade routes and make them safe from robbers. 3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements A. Architecture As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish the engraving of stele around the third century AD. There were totally fifty eight steles in and around Aksum that can be grouped into: – well made and decorated, – half completed and – megaliths (not hewn). As local tradition says, the steles were engraved specifically at Gobodara from which they were transported and planted in Aksum. The longest stele – measures 33meters heights (the first in the world). – It bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent (half moon) – Some scholars suggest that this giant stele was broken while the people were trying to erect it while others claim that it was broken during war. The second longest obelisk – measures 24 meters height that was successfully erected and – represents a ten-storied building with many windows and a false door The third longest stele – measures 21 meters and represents a nine-storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. It is smooth at the back of its side. It is without any decoration. The Zagwe churches the finest architecture of artistic achievements of the Christian world and that is why they were registered by UNESCO as part of world cultural heritage in 1978, two years before that of the Aksumite stele. B. Writing System The Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon/ ancient writing method. An ancient method of inscribing and writing in which lines are written alternately from right to left and from left to right The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the ninth century BC. Sabean inscriptions is absence of vowels as most of the words are written in consonants. For instance, Da’amat was described as D’mt, By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters identical to the first-order forms of modern vocalized alphabet. Though the first completely vocalized texts known are inscriptions by Ezana (who left trilingual inscriptions in Greek, Sabean and Ge'ez)c. Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense contribution to the development of literature, art and the writing of history. C. Calendar People needed to know and remember the times when the rains would begin and end, the rise and fall of the water level the length of the month was based on the movement of the moon or the apparent movement of the sun. the number of days in the week or in the year varied from region to region. Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical observations of moon in conjunction with seven or eight particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha (morning star). There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a year. Pillars (dated 300 B.C.), which were discovered in northwestern Kenya from 1978-86 by Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have suggested to represent site used to develop Oromo calendar. The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29 days. The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks. Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration. Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth month. A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and Gregorian calendars results from alternative calculation in determining date of Annunciation. Thus, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually September 11 (Gregorian). However, it falls on September 12 in years before the Gregorian leap year. The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to become the official calendar of the country. The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and his followers made flight from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community (ummah). Dates in this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of the Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra"). Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own dating system. D. Numerals Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century AD. Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but it lacks individual characters for multiples of 100. Numbers are over- and underlined in proper typesetting, combined to make a single bar, but some less sophisticated fonts cannot render this and show separate bars above and below each character.  UNIT FOUR POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES (6 hours) Introduction The period from the late thirteenth to the beginning of the sixteenth centuries experienced dynamic political, economic, and socio-cultural developments that lay the foundation for the formation of modern Ethiopia in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.  The "restoration" of the "Solomonic" Dynasty, succession problems, territorial expansion, shaped the course of history evangelization, flourishing and development of trade 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed: they were descendents of the last king of Aksum and hence, they were legitimate to take over state power from the “illegitimate” rulers of the Zagwe dynasty. As the claim has no historical evidence, the name “Restoration” is put in quotation mark. the name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation marks because the claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel is legendary.  the Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”) associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition. claims that Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno- Amlak to Emperor Haile Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I. 4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious Processes 4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’ of Amba Gishen The end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in 1285 was followed by: ✓ a political instability ✓ constant power struggles among his sons and grandsons for succession A letter written by Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94) to the Sultan of Egypt and the Patriarch of Alexandria in 1290 reflected the existence of those struggles. The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299.  The succession problem partly resolved in 1300 following the establishment of a 'royal prison' at Amba- Gishen located in present day Southern Wollo during the reign of Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) According to the rule of Amba Gishen, all male members of the royal family were confined/restricted at the Amba. Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal prison. When the monarch died, court dignitaries/VIP would send an army to the royal prison to escort the designated successor and put him on the throne. This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540. 4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs had no permanent capital. Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval Amhara (today’s South Wollo) around Lake Haiq. Gradually shifted southward to the districts of Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains.  Until the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the center and the territorial limit of the Christian Kingdom was mainly in present day Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa. Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on: a policy of a wider and rapid territorial expansion. His main motives of expansion were economic and political i.e. to control the trade routes and territorial seizures.  Amde-Tsion subdued rebellions in an attempt to end centrifugal tendencies, expanded his territory into: Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around 1323/4; Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7; Bete-Israel (located between Dambiya and Tekeze River) around 1332; and the Red Sea Coast. Gave Enderta (in today’s northeastern Tigray) to his wife Bilen-Saba.  faced stiff resistance from Ifat and Shewa Bahr-Sagad, the son of Amde-Tsion, became the governor of Tigray. In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today’s Eritrean region and appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which later on changed to Bahire- Negash. Muslim sultanates paid tributes to the Christian Kingdom. Gurage speaking areas and a few of the Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta and Gamo were brought under the influence of the Christian state. Amde-Tsion was in full control of all the trade routes and sources of trade of the Ethiopian region in the early 1330s. 4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob I. Evangelization Christianity had a long history of expansion. Iyesus-Mo'a spread to the central part of Ethiopia and later evangelized the newly incorporated areas where the influene of Christianity had either been non−existent or minimal. Abune Tekle-Haymanot revived Christianity in Shewa, evangelized southern Ethiopia including medieval Damot. baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity. spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa such as Kil'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya. II. Religious Movements A. The Ewostatewos Movement Monasticism: a way of living that's religious, isolated from other people, and self-disciplined became a dominant practice in Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the Mid 13th C the major one was the Ewostatewos movement, named after the founder. Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in present day Eritrea). Joined by many students and taught until about 1337. Among his teachings was the strict observance/adherence of Sabbath/ faithfulness a day of religious observance and abstinence from work, kept by Jewish people from Friday evening to Saturday evening, and by most Christians on Sunday He was opposed by an organized religious rival group of the clergy in Sera'e, he fled the country to Egypt. He faced the same opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian pilgrims. After Ewostatewos left Ethiopia, the movement was weakned although his followers led by Abba Absad tried their level best to maintain its momentum. The movement revived when some of his followers such as Bekimos, Merkoryewos and Gebre–Iyasus returned home from Armenia. The followers of Ewostatewos soon became active and dispersed to different monasteries in northern Ethiopia. The movement spread to areas like Enfranz, northern Tigray, and Hamessen. The movment was opposed by: The King and the Abun The monarch imprisoned some of the Ewostatians and the clergy expelled Ewostatians from their church services; Ewostatians were forced to settle in peripheral areas and some of them sustained their movement in monasteries like Debre- Bizen, Debre-San, etc. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites founded by spiritual leader abba Estifanos who was born in Agame. Got prominance in 15th c and continued until the 16th c, when it was formally reconciled with the main body of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. His movement gained followers in various monastic communities. When summoned to the royal court, Estifanos was initially able to convince the emperor (probably atse Takla Maryam, r. 1430-33).Later collided with Zara-Yaqob.  Zara-Yacob took very harsh measures against the Estifanosites allegedly for their opposition of the veneration of St. Mary. reintegration into the EOC during the period of Metropolitan abune Yeshaq. Estifanosites appear to have softened their position; the excommunication was lifted by the Metropolitan. III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to stabilize and consolidate the Orthodox Church. First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy Established church-state union. he made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in EOC he ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays and get Father Confessors. encouraged the establishment of a library in every church. revival of religious literature. Hewrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad, Metsafe-Sillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister,etc. some parts of Te’amre-Maryamwas translated from Arabic to Geez. 4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates A number of strong sultanates emerged since the 14thC Trade: was one of the major factors that resulted in the rise and development of Muslm sultanes sates. major source of conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim sultanates was the trade and the control of the trade route One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade routes and became a center of resistance against the Christian Kingdom until the second half of the sixteenth century was the Sultanate of Adal. 4.3.1. The Rise of Adal After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of campaigns against its neighbouring sultanates resisted the expansion of the Christian Kingdom. one branch of the Walasma family, which realized that Ifat was becoming an easy target to the Christian Kingdom due to its location, moved further to the southeastern lowlands and established new and vigorous Muslim Sultanate of Adal in the highland districts around Harar in 1367. The first center of this extended Walasma Dynasty was at a place called Dakar, a place located on the southeast of Harar. The Walasma family consolidated its power in the new center, and began another phase of military campaigns against the frontiers of the Christian Kingdom.  The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and after the defeat of Imam Ahmed; a growing threat from a new force-the Oromo forced the sultanate to change its capital to Awsa in 1576/7, to the present Afar region. 4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the Ethiopian region through Muslim merchants and preachers. Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam The most known Muslim Sultanates during this period were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577). The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-states of Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca were used as ports for their hinterland. different towns and trade centers emerged along the route from Zeila to the interior.  Known market towns that served the Zeila route. include ✓Weez-Gebeya in western Shewa/famous market on the Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar route, ✓Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot, ✓Suq-Amaja, Gandabalo on the Ifat-Awsa route. ✓Wasel near what is today Ware-Illu, Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and Mandalay in southern Tigray. ✓The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash (“Lord of the Sea”), and Asmara were the two important entre pots of caravans in the hinterland of Massawa. Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that passed through Zeila due to their geographical proximity, although contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom especially after its revival and consolidation. 4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates The ambition to control this trade route and commodities that passed through Zeila led to rivalry between the “Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat. The first recorded conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Ifat took place in 1328. The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to the Christian King, Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing, and imprisoning the king's agent, Ti’iyintay returning from Cairo. These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against Haqaddin I; defeated and took him prisoner and eventually replaced him by his brother Sabradin.  Both Ifat and Fatagar came under Sabradin. Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured on his retreat. As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated. Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes and freedom of movement for all caravans through Zeila. the decline of Ifat, weakned other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha, Harar, Bali, Dara, and Arbabani To check their attacks on the highlands, the successors of Emperor Amde-Tsion conducted repeated campaigns into the lowlands. In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled against Neway-Maryam (1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion. However, he died fighting in 1386. the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’d ad-Din II (C. 1386-1402) gained initial success until king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3 extended his expansion and defeated him.  Sa’d ad-Din II became refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed him in 1415. Following the death of Sa’d ad-Din and loss of Zeila to Christian Kings, the Muslim sultanates declined in power. Sa’d ad-Din’s sons who took refuge in Yemen came back to succeed their father. Yet, Adal continued to challenge the Christian state and were successful in killing Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq. This led to intense struggle for predominance. During the mid-fifteenth century, Emperor Zara Yaqob gained some access to the Red Sea. In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of Yeguba.  As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of submission to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal In 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-Dengel's (r. 1508-40) force his son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, puplarly known as Ahmed Gragn or the "left-handed" took over the leadership.  trade continued to be the major channel of 1. social integration 2. friendship, 3. interaction, 4. interdependence, and social ties. 5. conflict among the states of the region. the difference in ecology of the Muslim sultanates and the Christian Kingdom created economic interdependence, These interactions and interdependence in economic, social, cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for modern Ethiopia 4.5.2. Relations with Christian Europe During the medieval period, contacts between the two regions were strongly influenced by the legend of “Prester John”. 1395 Ethiopian delegation attended Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s coronation in Milan In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance. Amde-Tsion was presented to King Phillip of France in 1332. The identification of the King with “Prester John” was firmly established in the fourteenth century.  Hence, during the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria, Armenia and Egypt sent letters to the king in which they asked for support. King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly of Florentines. 1402, sent his first delegation to Europe led by a Florentine man called Antonio Bartoli.  1427 Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city of Valentia, in Yishaq’s delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans and military experts. embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and a Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign of Yishaq. King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political, military, and technical assistance.  Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and wife of Zara Yaeqob) played an important role in the strengthening of these relations. She had foreseen, 1. the threat that came from the Ottoman Turkish who showed a clear interest to support the Muslim Sultanates. 2. the possibility to consolidate relations with and get support from Portugal that was against the Turkish. In 1508, Portugal sent ambassador to Christian Ethiopia. Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne- Dengel sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal. 1520 the Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia and remained for six years. The objective was to establish a naval port against the expanding Turkish power in Red Sea Area. The mission was not successful.  UNIT FIVE POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY 16th C TO THE END OF 18th CENTURIES (10 hrs) 5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal Cause of conflicts Competition and struggle for control over the trade routes wars for religious supremacy mal-administration and exploitation of periphery increased population and overgrazing in Somali and Afar of eastern Ethiopia Imam Ahmed His origin is obscure. Born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga. Soldiered for Garad Abun of Adal, who during his few years in power called for Islamic Puritanism. Lowland inhabiting Muslim pastoralists had wanted to expand to high plateaus for better and enough pasture lands and held back by the Christian army in 1520, Imam Ahmed was strong enough for military confrontation 1527he refused to pay tribute and this was followed by a campaign against the Christian Kingdom  The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and the Christian Kingdom was at risk. In 1528 Lebne-Dengel, mobilized a vast force from his domain and encamped about fifty kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa. Christian Kingdom failed to defeat Adal’s force due to shortage of logistics, Imam’s army had excellent leadership characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command 1529 Christian army was defeated at Shimbra Kure near present day Mojo. Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the territories of the Christian Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash.  By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast including the Ethiopian interior. Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative bureaucracy constituted from his own men and newly recruited personnel from the Christian territories. Bati Del Wanbara/ the wife of the Imam,She was the daughter of Mahfuz. She had encouraged her husband to avenge the death of her father. She accompanied her husband and said to have marched even in a state of pregnancy during which she was unable to use mules. she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present day Tigray  1540 Lebne-Dengel, died in being fugitive.His son Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559).Imam Ahmed had received Turkish musketeers. 1541 about four hundred Portuguese soldiers led by Christopher da Gama youngest son of Vasco da Gama arrived in the Christian court August 1542 the Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in today's southern Tigray. In the battle, about two hundred Portuguese and their leader Christopher da Gama was killed and the leader was beheaded. An important anecdote that should be mentioned here is the role of Lebne-Dengel's wife Seblewongel. She is said to have participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542 when  Seble-Wongel, advised the reigning emperor how to prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-Dega. Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army. Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous quality of easy mobility because they did not know where the attacks came from. On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed at the battle of Woyna-Dega.  Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility and his army were loyal to him. Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos Gelawdewos was able to restore many of pre-1520s territories and tributary regions. The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through campaigns to different areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas. By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom.  the growing challenge to the Christian state came from 1. the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, 2. the Ottoman Turks, 3. Jesuit interlude, and 4. Oromo that advanced into the center. Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid wage war against the Christian state for revenge. In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the king himself. Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the Turks' force and reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa. However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied with the Turks against him. Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) defended the Turks while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo. The emperor then marched to the north, defeated Turkish forces, and restored the territories. The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted in a number of consequences. 1. huge human and material cost. 2. paving the way for an easy infiltration and 3. success of the Oromo population movement. 4. cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia. 5. Linguistic and religious interactions 6. intermarriages among peoples of the various groups Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean between Portugal and the Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities a global dimension. Persians, Arabs, Syrians, Egyptians, and Turks, traditional international trade intermediaries, who were under Ottoman Turks were hit by discovery 5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies The destruction of property and deaths of its clergy hampered the operation of the Church Alliance with Roman Catholicism to secure sufficient modern weaponry and training to restore its lost territories. In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism. The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and separate, natures of Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to Monophysite theology of Ethiopian Orthodox Church. EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect human nature inseparable from divinity.  Jesuit evangelizeers include: Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez were active. The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), but he was not prepared to give in. He defended the teachings of Orthodox Christianity in a document entitled the Confession of Faith. Minas and Sertse-Dengel, who succeeded Gelawdewos one after the other, were too busy fighting against the Oromo and the Turkish forces to entertain the Jesuits in their courts. Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4) secretly converted to Catholicism. But Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect the desired result. Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7), who befell a similar fate in the hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32). In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and announced it to be state religion later in 1622. 1617-8 several anti-Catholic voices mounted following the changes in liturgy/worship and religious practices.  Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez ordered 1. reconsecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of the mass. 2. called for the suspension of Jewish customs such as male circumcision 3. the observance of the Sabbath. 4. prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez, 5. fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, 6. reverence for Ethiopian saints and 7. the Ark of Covenant (Tabot) 8. ordered eating pork, 9. Latin Mass and Gregorian calendar to be adopted. Revolt after Reform revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the nobility. Even loyal followers of the emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the changes initiated by the Jesuits. After 1625 controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the state came to the verge of falling apart. In1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in one day. the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who countered the Catholic transformation. Fasiledas’s reforms : Restored Orthodox Church as the state religion, expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos’ uncle Se'ela Kristos. introduced a new policy called "Close-Door Policy", for fear of another religious conflict which isolated the state from all Europeans for about a century and a half.  he initiated and adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations with the Islamic world and formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim states In 1647, he concluded an agreement with the Ottoman Pasha at Suakin and Massawa to the effect that the latter should block any European from entering in to his territory. Restored peace and order. Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained effective until the beginning of the 19th century with the exception of secret visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and 1769, respectively.  Doctrinal divisions and controversy within the Ethiopian because of Jesuits Orthodox Church divided into disputant sects reached its peak during the Zemene Mesafint. A.Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity as a Divine Being the eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into the world as a perfect man and perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo (United). It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta. B.Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at the moment of his incarnation, when he was born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him. This sect was dominant in Gojjam. C.Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ was first born in eternity as divine being, was born again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost. This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa. 5.3. Population Movements population move