Medieval Period & Renaissance in Europe PDF

Context: Medieval period in Europe -​ The Medival period - refers to the period known as the “Middle Ages” -​ Fall of Rome -> Beginning of Renaissance -​ Also known as the “Dark Ages” Late Medieval Europe -​ Dangerous world! Disease, poor diet, famine, etc -​ Social and Political unr...

Context: Medieval period in Europe -​ The Medival period - refers to the period known as the “Middle Ages” -​ Fall of Rome -> Beginning of Renaissance -​ Also known as the “Dark Ages” Late Medieval Europe -​ Dangerous world! Disease, poor diet, famine, etc -​ Social and Political unrest -​ Religion pervaded all aspects of life Demographic Disaster in Europe -​ 14th Europe population ceiling - land could not support the population -​ 1315-1320 - bad weather caused crop failures -​ Starving peasants ate all their grain reserve …, and then their seeds The Black Death -​ Arrival -> 1346-1347 -​ No biological resistance in the population. The disease spreads rapidly throughout Europe -​ Impacted those of child-rearing age particularly - preventing reproduction Social, Political and Economic Problems -​ Demographic collapse -> economic depression -​ Low demand for food = collapse of agricultural prices and profits -​ Economic depression leads to social unrest. Peasants revolt across Europe The Role of Religion in Medival Europe -​ Fear of God. The devil and hel = real and powerful -​ God = stern and vengeful -​ Fear of Punishment in this life and the afterlife Providence -​ Providence - God's justice on earth -​ Belief that your actions come back to punish or reward you -​ Collective or individual, good or bad (see: poor crop yields, famines, death etc) The Origins of the Renaissance -​ General sense of Pessimism about daily life -​ Preoccupation with death and suffering -​ Overall lack of confidence in traditional thought and society -​ Desire for rebirth and renewal The Renaissance - Overview -​ Occurred between the 14th-17th century -​ Period of cultural, artistic, political, and economic “rebirth” -​ Promoted rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature, and art The Renaissance - Causes -​ The Renaissance started in Northern Italy because of … 1.​ Large cities 2.​ Wealthy merchant class 3.​ Inspiration from ancient Rome Large Cities -​ Northern Italy = Largely urban -​ Rest of Europe = mostly rural -​ 14th-century Italy similar to large ancient cities -​ Large urban population = easy exchange of ideas Wealth -​ Wealthy merchant class developed in each Italian city-state -​ Amussed fortunes in trades and commerce -​ Trade creates a concentration of wealth in cities -​ Wealth invested in culture, art, and education Inspiration -​ Ruins and other artifacts continually reminded Italians of the “glorious past” -​ Church-preserved ancient manuscripts -​ Renaissance scholars studied preserved text Humanism - Intellectuals movement focus on human concerns and classicism during the Renaissance -​ Stressed the study of great Greek and Roman classical writings -​ Liberal arts education > vocational training (job specific) -​ Popularized studies commonly referred to as the humanists Petrarch - The First Humanist -​ 1304-1374 -​ scholar/poet -​ Emphasized the study of Classical authors over these of the middle ages Renaissance Man -​ Renaissance man - one who excels in all matters -​ Numerous innovations in style, techniques amd subject matter -​ Devotion to political and social community Renaissance Art -​ The achievement most readily associated with the Renaissance -​ Numerous innovations in style, technique, and subject matter -​ Represented a revolutionary break with the past Patronage -​ Patronage - support, financial, or otherwise, offered to guests -​ In the Middle Ages, the main patron for art was the Church -​ Shift in patronage during the Renaissance -​ Church Patronage - strict control over artists and expansion -​ Lay Patronage - Less dense for conflict -​ More freedom -> Opportunity to express artistic originality. New Techniques and styles emerged Characteristics of Medieval Art -​ Stressed the divine/religious in theme (see: biblical, stories, saints, etc) -​ Created for the Church to glorify God -​ Flat, unrealistic and disproportionate -​ Symbolism > Realism Characteristics of Renaissance art -​ Emphasized nature and beauty -​ Greater focus on overall quality -​ Realistic depictions of human form (see: proportions) -​ Use of shadows and light -​ Emotionally charged Early vs High Renaissance -​ Early Renaissance 1400-1495 -​ High Renaissance 1495-1520 -​ Early Renaissance High Renaissance -​ Reintroduction of classical -​ High of artist achievement elements -​ Mastery of techniques and -​ Experimentation with new artistic principles techniques Renaissance Artists - Giotto Di Bondone -​ 1266-1336 -​ Pioneer of Renaissance style -​ Introduced a new emphasis on realism and emotion -​ Lamentation of Christ (1306) Characteristics of Renaissance art - Important Technique 1.​ Linear & atmospheric perspective 2.​ Chiaroscuro 3.​ Sfumato 4.​ Contrapposto Perspective - A mathematical technique designed to render three-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional surface Contrapposto - A way of posing a figure so that it stands with its weight on one leg Chiaroscuro - Contract between light and darkness to create a more realistic and dramatic effect Renaissance Artists - Filippo Brunelleschi -​ 1337-1446 -​ Revived linear perspective and classical Roman architecture -​ Florence Cathedral Duomo (1436) Renaissance Artists - Michelangelo -​ 1475-1564 -​ Master of contrapposto technique -​ Sistine Chapel Fresco’s (1508-1512) & David (1501) Renaissance Artists - Leonardo Davinci -​ 1452-1519 -​ Pioneered sfumato -​ Transferred botanical knowledge to painting -​ Mona Lisa (1519) and the Last Supper (1498) Beyond Renaissance Artists - Carvaggio -​ 1571 - 1610 -​ Use of dramatic Chiaroscuro -​ Painted realistic observation -​ The calling of St.Mathew (1600) and David with the Head of Goliath (1610) Feudalism -​ Social, economic, and political system -​ Dominated Europe during the Middle Ages -​ Strictly hierarchy of loads, vassals, and serfs -​ King owns all land -​ King grants large estates to Nobles or Lords, who promise military help and loyalty -​ Nobles or Lords gave smaller portions of their land to knights and vassals, who pledged to serve and protect them -​ Serfs and Peasants -​ Those who worked the land of the manor -​ Provided food/labor to their lords -​ Received protection and a place to live City States: Autonomous (self-governing) political units that have a major city as their centre and include the near hinterland -​ Centre of commerce, art, politics -​ Varied political structures, laws, commerce -​ Provided framework for modern diplomacy - Ex: embassies, aliances, commercial relations Decline of Feudalism -​ Economy from agriculture to trade/industry -​ Citizens developed skills for “modern” business practices -​ Reduces the importance of rural lands controlled by nobles -​ Gradual decline of feudalism Oligarchy: Government of the few usually a group of powerful wealthy people or aristocrats Republic: Power is held by the people and their elected representatives The Medici Family -​ 1437-1737 -​ Influential Italian banking family -​ Shaped cultural and political landscape of Florence Niccolo Machiavelli -​ 1469-1527 -​ Civil Servant -​ Consulted the first modern political philosopher -​ The Prince (15130 -​ Advice to rulers on how to acquire, maintain, and expand political power Machiavellian: Cunning, Scheming, and unscrupulous especially in politics Renaissance in the North - Christian Humanism -​ Concerned with church influence -​ Sought revival and renewal of religious life. Return to the “Apostolic Church” -​ Looked for answers in writings of the church fathers and the bible -​ Spread quickly in Germany THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION -​ Religious movement in 16th-century Europe -​ Began with Roman Catholic reformers -​ Ended with the establishment of Protestant Churched THE EVE OF REFORMATION -​ Unfulfilling church experience, alienating, impersonal, in Latin -​ Poor preaching -​ Church’s crises -> loss of credibility as spiritual leader POPE CLEMENT V -​ 1305-1378 -​ Elected in 1305 -​ Resided in Avignon, France -​ Ended with the election of Pope Urban IV in 1378 THE GREAT SCHISM (WESTERN SCHISM) -​ 1378-1417 -​ Pope Urban VI's election disputed -​ Election of Antipope(rival) Clement VII (1378) -​ Formal two papal lines -​ Urban Vi (Rome), Clement VII (Avigon) COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE 1414-1418 -​ Disposed of three existing popes -​ Elects Pope Martin V in 1417 -​ Papacy Reuters to Rome, reunifies church CLERICAL CORRUPTION -​ Ignorant, little education, many illiterate, knew little Latin (language of the Bible) -​ Taught parishioners little about religion -​ Poor -​ Ignorant -​ Illiterate -​ Viewed as immoral ad hypocritical, questionable practices SACRAMENTAL SYSTEM - THE POWER BASE OF THE CHURCH -​ The sacramental system held people to the church  -​ Necessary for admission into heaven THE RISE OF THE POPULAR DIETY -​ Churchgoers develop their own religious practices -​ Attempted to feel “connected” to religious experience - Rosary beads, stations of the cross, Relics, etc -​ Belief in satisfying religious life without church MARTIN LUTHER -​ 1483-1546 -​ German monk/scholar -​ Challenged beliefs and traditions of the Catholic Church MARTIN LUTHER - EARLY LIFE -​ Set to university in Erfurt Germany, studied law -​ Near-death experience with a lightning storm changed the direction of studies/life -​ Withdraws from law school and enters a monastery Roman 1:17 - “The righteousness of God shall be revealed through faith; as it is written, the righteousness shall live by faith” LUTHER’S INTERPRETATION -​ The Bible is a primary source of religious authority, not the church (sola scriptura) -​ Salvation from faith in Christ, not sacrament (sola fide) -​ Priesthood of “all believers” not just ordained clergy PURGATORY - a middle ground between heaven and hell -​ Purification after death -​ Cleanse imperfect souls before entering heaven INDULGENCE -​ Indulgence - remission of part or all the temporal and especially purgatorial punishment that is due for sins -​ Payment made to church, reduced punishment for sins -​ Could be purchased for living or dead -​ Viewed as immoral/corrupt LUTHER’S 95 THESES -​ “Disputation on the power and efficacy of indulgences” - Luther’s 95 Theses -​ Posted at Wittenberg church to protest the sale of indulgences by the Catholic Chruch -​ Suggested there should be limits to Chruch power -​ Designed to encourage academic discussion and debate THE PRINTING PRESS  -​ Introduced to Germany by Johannes Gutenberg -​ Encouraged the spread of ideas -​ Greatly accelerated the pace of the Reformation -​ Books from rare to common expensive to cheap -​ Promotion of vernacular language -​ Brighed high to low volume THE PRINTING PRESS - IMPACT -​ Promoted rebellion -​ Helped spread Luther’s ideas -​ Greatly accelerated the pace of the Protestant Reformation LUTHER’S EXCOMMUNICATION (1521) -​ Excommunication = expelled -​ “Spiritual death” -​ Formalized split between Luther / followers of the Catholic Church DIET OF WORMS (Jan 28 - May 26, 1521) -​ Diet = empirical assembly -​ Worms - a German city -​ Luther asked to recant(refuse) teachings -​ “Here I stand, I can do no other” Edict of Worms (May 25, 1521) -​ Edict = formal decrease -​ Luther declared a heretic and outlaw -​ Hersey -> Capital offense -​ Outlaw -> Not protected by law TRANSLATION OF BIBLE (1522-1534) -​ Luther translates the New Testament into German Later full Bible -​ Now accessible to “common people” -​ Ability to interpret scripture independently THE AUGSBURG CONFESSION (June 3, 1530) -​ Presented at the Diet of Augsburg -​ Outlines key tenants of Lutheranism -​ Formalized distinct Protestant theology Lutheranism -​ Services conducted in German, not Latin -​ Simplified structure to 2 sacraments - Baptism, Communion -​ No formal rituals on penance  Catholicism Protestant -​ 7 sacraments -​ 2 Sacrements - Eucharist, Baptism -​ Latin -​ Language if the people -​ Clergy must be celibate and Chaste -​ Clergy could marry -​ Purgatory is real -​ Only Heaven and Hell exist THE COUNCIL OF REFORMATION -​ Council of Trent 1545-1563 -​ Response of Protestant Reformation -​ Period of Church Reflection and Reformation CATHOLIC REFORMATION AND COUNTER REFORMATION - NOTABLE ACTIONS -​ Reform church practises (see: end of indulges) -​ Establishment of new religious orders (see: Jesuits) -​ Combat heresy (see: Roman Inquisition, Index of Prohibited Books) Intended Consequences Unintended consequences Deliberately planned outcomes or Unplanned outcomes or experiences that experiences that occur because of a decision occur because of a decision or action or action PLUARLISM - The idea that in any single nation-state, several religious, cultural, and/or ethnic groups should co-exist in the spirit of mutual toleration. Age of Exploration -​ Age of Exploration > Age of Discovery -​ Occurred between 15th and 17th century -​ Major players: Spain and Portugal -​ “Old world” come into contact with “New world” Old World vs New World -​ Describes areas known and unknown to Europeans -​ “Old World” - Europe, Asia, Africa -​ “New World” - North and South America Motivating Factors -​ Religion -​ Power -​ Trade  -​ Technological advancement Motivating Factors - Religion -​ Religious division intensified competition between European powers -​ Belief in the superiority of Christianity / Protestantism -​ Motivated by the desire to convert Indigenous populations Motivating Factors - Power & Prestige -​ Desire for glory/global recognition -​ Enhanced prestige and power through territorial acquisition Motivating Factors - Trade/Economics -​ Demand for spices, silk, gold and silver -​ Previously dominated by Muslim and Venetian Merchants (Ex.Silk Road) -​ Desire to find new emotional trade routes to the east Motivating Factors - Nautical/Technological Advancement -​ Advancements in shipbuilding facilitated long-distance travel (See: The Caravel) -​ More accurate mapping -​ Navigational tools (i.e Magnetic Compass) ​ Nautical Adnavement - The Caravel -​ Combined two sails; triangular lateen sails (light winds) & square-rigged sailed (heavy winds) -​ Easily maneuverable -​ Shallow hulled -​ Heavy Cannons Portuguese Beginnings - Henry the Navigator -​ Prince > Sailor -​ Patron of nautical exploration -​ Established navigation academy (sangrias, Portugal) -​ Credited with starting the Age of Exploration Cartography - The study or practice of drawing maps Mapping in the Age of Explorations -​ Cartographer Hernius Martellus -​ Displayed the entire world known to Europeans -​ Believed to have been used by Columbus / others Spanish Exploration - Christopher Columbus -​ Born in Genoa (now part of Italy)  -​ Lived in Portugal, sailed for Spain, Sponsored by King Ferdinand / Queen Isabela -​ 4 voyages to the Americas Spanish Exploration - Christopher Columbus - The Voyages -​ First voyage - 1492-1493 -​ 3 ships: The Nina, The Pinta, The Santa Maria -​ First landfall in the Bahamas The Voyage of Columbus - An Overview -​ Goal = Find shorter to Asia/India and the spice trade -​ Plan = Sail west and circumnavigate the globe -​ Circumnavigate - to travel all the way around an obstacle Age of Exploration - Indigenous Population -​ Enlisted before the arrival of Europeans -​ Unique cultures, traditions, social/political structures and languages -​ Flourishing global cities (see: Tenochtitlan) ​ ​ The Aztecs (Mexico) -​ 14th-16th century -​ Mesoamerican (Mexico) -​ Capital: Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico city) -​ Established 200,000-300,000 inhabitants Imperialism - The policy or practice by which a country extends its power and influence over other countries and territories Colonization - The action or process of settling among and establishing control over the Indigenous people of an area Imperialism Colonization Broad goal/policy Method or tool “Big Picture” Specific action Colonization - Key Elements 1.​ Permanent settlement 2.​ Economic exploitation 3.​ Political control 4.​ Cultural assimilation Colonization - Settlement -​ Establishment of permanent communities overseas  -​ Strategically selected locations (see: the Caribbeans) -​ The foothold for further expansion/exploitation ​ ​ Colonization - Economic -​ Exploitation of resources of the colonized territory (human & natural) -​ Development of local economies and infrastructure to facilitate extraction -​ Use of forced labour to extract resources -​ Mercantilism - the economic system used by European powers to obtain wealth Colonization - Economic - Mercantilism -​ Stressed accumulation of precious resources -​ Maximize exports, minimize imports -​ Restrictive trade Colonization - Political Control -​ Created administrative and government structures -​ Established Laws -​ Enforced and established by Military force, treaties Colonization - Assimilation -​ Imposed cultural values, beliefs, and practises -​ Used education, religion, or language policies (See: Canadian Residential Schools) -​ Goal: achieve cultural sameness Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) -​ Attempt to avoid conflict/war -​ Divided lands outside of Europe -​ Portugal and Spain signatories Conquistador - Spanish Conqueror Hernan Cortes Fransisco Pizarro Led the conquest of the Aztec Empire and Led the conquest of the Inca Empire and established Spanish values in Mexico established Spanish rule in Peru Case Study: Spanish Conquest Permanent Settlement -​ Tenochtitlan -> Mexico City (Capital of New Spain) -​ Forced relocation of the Indigenous population -​ Demographic decline in Indigenous populations (See: warfare, disease, etc) Vice Royalties - A region or territory governed by a viceroy on behalf of the Spanish king  Political Control -​ Spanish crown set regulations/guidelines (See: Leyes de las Indias) -​ Established framework for courts, government, lands, distro, etc -​ Spaniards granted positions of privilege/authority ​ Cultural Assimilation -​ Indigenous language -> Castilian Spanish -​ Christianity replaces traditional spiritual practices -​ Cultural erosion and loss of knowledge/practice Economic Exploitation -​ Crops grown for European benefits -​ Mines striped of precious metals -​ Enslavement used for labour The Columbian Exchange - exchange of technology, diseases, ideas, food crops, and populations between the New World and the Old World following the voyage of the Americas by Christopher Columbus Impact of The Columbian Exchange -​ Population Growth -​ New foods support the population growth globally (See: potatoes in Ireland) -​ Population Decline -​ Diseases brought to America led to the demographic collapse of Indigenous populations (See: smallpox, Whooping cough) -​ Demographic Change -​ Demand for Labour on populations facilitated the transatlantic slave trade, forcibly bringing millions of Africans to the Americas -​ Cultural Impact -​ Facilitated the blending of cultures (See: languages, religion, music, food) in the Americas and other parts of the world -​ Economic Impact -​ New World (See: silver, gold) fueled European economies and empire-building, accelerating colonial expansion Columbian Exchange - Globalization Globalization - The trend toward greater “interconnectedness” between countries/economies, cultures, and societies The Scientific Revolution -​ Primarily 17th century -​ Challenged long standing ideas of the universe/knowledge -​ New methods of scientific inquiry developed -​ The birth of “modern science” Context: Knowledge Prior to the Scientific Revolution -​ “Truth” already “discovered”, (see: Ancient Authorities & The Bible) -​ Science contradicted church teachings. Church feared further loss of influence/credibility -​ Church resistant to change. Condemned Heretics (See: The Inquisition) Context: Aristotle and the Old Science -​ Based primarily on Aristotle -​ “Encyclopedic knowledge” knowledge of every academic field -​ Highly revered. Long accepted trucths Context: Growing Skepticism in Ancient Authorities -​ New math techniques/tools to make measurements/calculations -​ Observations (See: Voyages of Discovery, etc) disprove the teachings of ancients -​ What else don’t we know? What are they wrong about? Cosmology - a branch of science and/or philosophy that deals with the structure and order of the heavens and earth Geocentrism - The theory of the universe that posits the earth at the centre Copernicus -> Brahe -> Kepler -> Galileo -> Newton’s unified system Cosmology - Geocentrism - Overview -​ Posited by Aristotle and Ptolemy -​ Sun, moon, stars move in circular, uniform orbits around the earth -​ Supported by religious belief Nicolaus Copernicus -​ One the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) -​ Challenged prevailing theory of the universe -​ Beginning of the SCientific Revolution Heliocentrism - The theory of the universe that posits the sun at the center Galileo Galilei -​ Dialogue of the Two Chief Systems -​ First to study the night sky with an optical telescope. Shift from “naked eye” astronomy -​ Experiments to test what he observed -​ “Father of the Experimental Science” Issac Newton -​ Principa (1687) -​ Synthesized discoveries of predecessors into coherent system  -​ Foundation for modern physics as well as calculus Epistemology - the branch philosophy that deals with origin and nature of knowledge and how ascertain that something is True or False Francis Bacon -​ Novum Organum (1620) -​ Reliable knowledge gained through experience -​ Stressed careful observation of events in nature -​ “Father of Empiricism” Empiricism - A philosophy that states that the senses are the only source of real and verifiable knowledge Rene Descartes - Rationalism -​ Discourse on Method (1637) -​ Used doubt to establish truth -​ Senses can be fooled and information can be false -​ Cogito Ergo Sum = “I think therefore, I am” Rationalism - A philosophy that stresses reason itself as a source of knowledge independent of the senses Deduction - A method of reasoning from the general to the specific 1.​ General statement 2.​ Pattern Recognition 3.​ Specific Statement Induction - A method of reasoning from the specific to the general 1.​ Specific statement 2.​ Pattern Recognition 3.​ General Statement State of Nature - A condition without government Thomas Hobbes -​ 1588-1679 -​ English Philosopher -​ Leviathan (1651) -​ Imagined society in state of nature -> pessimistic view Thomas Hobbes - On Power of Government / Individual Rights -​ Left on own, chaos and conflict would rule -​ Desire for power = violence  -​ Life is “short, nasty, and brutish” -​ Q: How do we escape this state? -​ A: Abandon state of nature to “sovereign” -​ Absolutism creates social order -​ Should not have the right to revolt John Locke -​ 1633-1704 -​ English Philosopher -​ Two Treatise of Government (1689) -​ Imagined society in state of nature -> Optimistic view of human nature John Locke - On Power of Government / Individual Rights -​ People maintained “Natural Rights” -​ Government is to protect natural rights -​ Government should have limited power. Revolt the government if it is failing citizens Forms of Government -​ Absolutism - The idea that a monarch should have absolute power and that the state should be centralized under the this theory -​ Constitutional Democracy - A form of government where power is exercised within the bounds of a constitution The Enlightenment -​ Late 17th - 18th century -​ Progression from the Scientific Revloution -​ The Age of Reason -​ Reason, Science, individual rights > tradition, religion, absolute monarchy Philosophes - Leading intellectual figures of the French Enlightenment Ideals -​ Reason - Reason as a path to knowledge and opposed reliance on superstition and religious authority -​ Individual Rights and Freedoms - promoted natural rights of individuals, including freedom of speech, religion, and the rights to self-governance -​ Secularization & Skepticism - Emphasized separating church from state and allowing science to operate independently of religious doctrine or tradition -​ Progress - glorified human progress and the possibility of perfecting society through education, reason, and innovation -​ Education & Exchange - encouraged spreading knowledge through education, print culture (see: books, pamphlets, and newspapers, and salons where ideas were exchanged freely) The Encyclopédie (Ou dictionnaire Raisonné des science, des arts et de métiers) (1751-1765) -​ Collection of human knowledge -​ Promoted enlightenment ideals -​ 300 writers, 72000 articles -​ Chief editor Denis Diderot / Jean d’Alembert The Salon -​ Meetings of intellectuals -​ Conversation main activity -​ Guided by hostess The Ideal Salon Participant -​ Possessed love of learning -​ Thoughtful & sensitive -​ Reflective Role of the Salonnieres -​ Analyze strength/weakness of guests -​ Promote self-actualizations -​ Challenge limitations of guests The Impact of Salon Culture -​ “Testing ground” for projects, ideas, and ideals -​ Illuminated deep rooted social and political issues -​ Model salon virtues in all areas of life The Enlightenment - Key Figures - Francois - Maire Arouet (Voltaire) -​ 1644-1778 -​ Writer -​ Advocate for civil liberties, religious tolerance, and freedom of speech -​ Use of satire to criticize French government Satire - Technique that uses humor, irony, exaggeration or ridicule to criticize or expose the flaws of individuals, institutions, or society as a whole Goals of Satire 1.​ Entertain 2.​ Expose 3.​ Encourage critical thinking 4.​ Inspire change The Ancien Regime (The Old Regime)  -​ Estates - A class or order of people within a state, having distinct right and obligations different from those of other classes in the state -​ Privileges - Rights or advantages held by a special class within a state, to the exclusion of other classes (Ex; paying less taxes -​ 1st Estate - 6-10% of population - had their own courts -​ 2nd Estate - 25% of population - Exempt from certain taxes -​ 3rd Estate - 70-75% of population - Approx 25 million people Louis XIV -​ 1638-1715 -​ King of France, 72-year review -​ Le Roi Solei (The Sun King) -​ Centre of France’s government, religion and culture Louis XIV - Centralized Authority -​ King ultimate authority -​ Mode laws, levied taxes, and controlled the military -​ “L’etat, c’est moi” (I am the State) Context: The Edict of Nantes (1598) -​ Issued by King Henry IV -​ Ended religious wars between Catholic and Protestant (see: French wars of Religion [1562-1598] -​ Granted rights / freedoms to Huguenots (French Protestants) Louis XIV - Religious Control -​ Attempted to enforce religious unity under Catholicism -​ Issued Edict of Fontainebleau (1685) -​ Outlawed Protestantism Louis XIV - Control of Nobility -​ Nobility required to live at Palace of Versailles -​ Distracted by court ceremonies / events -​ Dependant on favour of king Francois Marie Arouet (Voltaire) - Letters To The English (1784) -​ Series of essays -​ Contrasted English society with French -​ Criticized French politics, monarchy, and religion. -​ Praised English The Enlightenment - Key Figures - Baron De Montesquieu (Charles-Louis De Secondat) -​ 1689-1755 -​ Lawyer -​ Analyzed forms of government -​ Opped absolutism Baron De Montesquieu - The Spirit of the Laws (1748) Cultural Universalism Cultural Relativism Certain values, principles, and practices are Beliefs values, and practices must be universally applicable to all countries understood within the context of a specific culture, not judged by standards of another Division of Powers - Necessary to prevent tyranny, ensure liberty (see; check and balance) 1.​ Legislative branch - Makes laws (e.g Congress, or Parliament) 2.​ Executive Branch - Enforces and carries out the laws (e.g the President or Prime Minister) 3.​ Judicial Branch - Interprets and applies the laws (e.g courts) Rousseau -​ Human Nature and the State of Nature: Rousseau believed humans were naturally good, compassionate, and free in the state of nature but became corrupted by the development of society, property, and inequality. "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains." -​ The Social Contract: In "The Social Contract", Rousseau argued that legitimate political authority arises from a social contract in which individuals collectively agree to surrender some freedoms to form a community. Sovereignty resides with the general will—the collective good that transcends individual interests. -​ Critique of Inequality: In "Discourse on Inequality", Rousseau criticized the rise of private property and social hierarchies, which he saw as the root of inequality and moral decay. -​ Education and Emile: Rousseau's "Emile" emphasized education as a process of fostering natural development and individuality rather than rigid instruction, promoting experiential learning over rote memorization. -​ Emotion and Romanticism: Rousseau valued emotion and intuition as key to human experience, influencing Romanticism by challenging the Enlightenment's focus on reason. The French Revolution -​ 1789-1799 -​ Political and social uprising. Overturned monarchy -​ Established republic Redefined French society The French Revolution - Causes 1.​ Social 2.​ Economic  3.​ Political 4.​ Idealogical Social - Inequality -​ 1st and 2nd estates -​ Largely exempt from taxes -​ Dominated high-ranking government, military, and judicial positions -​ Enjoyed luxury and social prestige -​ 3rd estate -​ Bore heavy tax burden -​ Excluded from meaningful political influence -​ Lived in poverty (peasants), or faced high costs of living (urban workers) Ideological - The Enlightenment -​ Created “ideological context” for revolution -​ Philosophes challenged social hierarchies/highlighted inequalities -​ Promoted ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity -​ Fueled demand for new social order Idealogical - The American Revolution -​ American success over English -​ Demonstrated the possibility of overthrowing on oppressive regime -​ French soldiers fought in America. Bring back Revolutionary ideas/values (see: Lafayette) Economic - Debt -​ France engaged in major wars between 1689-1815 (See: seven years war (1756-1763)) -​ Conflict -> large war debt -​ Resentment of England leads to French support of American Revolution (1756-1791). Exacerbates debt Economic - Food prices -​ Bread = food prices -​ Series of bad harvest in France due to severe weather (see: drought, harsh winter 1788) -​ Grain supplies fell, bread became scarce and expensive -​ Hunger and malnutrition spread Political - Ineffective Leadership -​ King Louis XVi -​ King of France -​ French Born -​ Inherited the throne at the age of 20 -​ Perceived as immature/indecisive. Lacking the confidence to rule -​ Marie Antoinette  -​ Queen of England -​ Austrian born -​ Married at the age of 14. Union to solidify the political alliance between France and Austria -​ Perceived as extravagant and detached / out of touch Towards Revolution: The Meeting of The Estates General -​ Estates General = Legislative body of ancient regime -​ Called to address the financial crisis (May 1, 1789) -​ Comprised of deputies (representatives) from all three estates -​ Cahier de Doleances -​ List of Grievances -​ Customarily presented to King -​ Differing grievances/demands betweens estates -​ Estates historically voted by body (i.e. 1 vote for each body) -​ Voting structure debated / challenge -​ 3rd estate demanded “one man one vote” -​ 1st estate and 2nd estate resist, fearing loss of privileges Declaration of the National Assembly -​ 3rd estate declared itself the National Assembly -​ Claimed to represent the “common people” -​ Demand economic/social references -​ Joined by some clergy and nobility Tennis Court Oath -​ National Assembly locked out of meeting hall by king -​ Gather in a nearby tennis court -​ Swear an oath to continue meeting until drafting a new constitution for France Towards Revolution: The Storming of The Bastille ( July 14 1789) -​ State prison, Centre of Paris -​ Held political prisoners -​ Symbol of oppressive order -​ Stormed by revolutionaries -​ Thought to hold weapons / ammunition -​ Inspirational victory -​ Symbolic start of French Revolution The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen ( August 26, 1789) -​ Marquis de Lafayette - Principal author, Thomas Jefferson consult -​ Summarize the ideals of the French Revolution -​ Basis of future French Constitution/ state The Women’s March on Versailles - October 5-7th, 1789) -​ Women-led protest march against high prices of food (see: bread) -​ Starts in Paris market, Ends at Versailles -​ Mob forces King and Queen to relocate to Paris Emigres- individuals who fled France throughout the French Revolution -​ Disproportionately aristocrats/clergy -​ Sought refuge in neighbouring European countries (see: Sweden) -​ Wanted return of Old Regime The Flight to Varnes - June 20-21, 1791 -​ Royals under house arrest (see: Tuileries palace, Paris) -​ Attempt to flee France to Montmedy (present-day Belgium) -​ Acted by royalist sympathizers (see: Count Arel von France) -​ Border with the Austrian Netherlands -​ Significant military & royalist presence -​ Aimed to rally support and plan counter-revolution French Revolution To The King’s Flight -​ Captured and returned to Paris as traitors -​ Increased calls for the abolition of monarchy/establishment of a republic -​ Leads to the trial and execution of the King / Queen Declaration of French Republic - (September 21, 1792) - 1st Republic The Trial of King Louis XVI -​ King tried for conspiracy -​ Convicted -​ Executed January 21, 1793 Revolutionary Names and Symbols -​ Efforts to eradicate all signs of the Old Regime -​ Churches renamed to reflect secularization of society -​ Changes in measurement / time presented as more rational Example: The Revolutionary Calendar -​ 12 months, 3 x 10-day weeks -​ Months named to reflect the rhythm of the seasons (Ex: January -> Nivose (The month of snow) -​ Days named for mathematical regularity (see: Primidi, Doudi, etc) -​ Start time = September 22, 1992 (Year 1) Challenges to the Republic  -​ Coalitions of European monarchies determined to crush the revolution / restore monarchies -​ Counter-revolutionary uprising (see: Vendee revolution) -​ Intense rivalry and power struggles with the revolutionary government. Rival Poitical Groups - Girondians -​ Moderate political group with provincial and middle-class (bourgeois) support base Rival Political Groups - Jacobins -​ Radical political group with urban and working-class support base Maximillain Robespierre -​ Lawyer/Politician -​ The leading figure of the Jacobins club -​ Used violence to achieve political aims The Terror, Sept 1793 - July 1794 -​ State terrorism -​ Carried out by the Commitee for Public Saftey -​ Aimed to “preserve the Revolution” The Committee of Public Saftey -​ Established April 6, 1793 -​ 12-member body -​ Controlled the military, judiciary, and police The Committee of Public Saftey - Law of Suspect -​ Broadly defined “counter-revolutionary activity” -​ Thousands arrested and tried with little evidence -​ Revolutionary tribunals expedited convictions and executions Public Executions -​ Guillotines used to execute “ counter-revolutionaries” -​ Public spectacles -​ Designed to instill fear and maintain control. The Death of Robespierre - July 27, 1794 -​ Robespierre announces upcoming purge of enemies -​ Fearful deputies vote to have Robespierre arrested, later executed -​ End of “the Reing of Terror” The Directory 1795-1799 -​ Centrist government -​ New Constitution - “Constitution of Year iii”  -​ 5 directors chosen by 2 houses of parliament -​ Proves weak and ineffective Napolean Bonaparte - Overview -​ 1769-1821 -​ Reversed military leader -​ !st Emporer of France Napoleon Bonaparte - Early Life -​ Born in Corsica -​ Recieved military education in France -​ Jacobin sympathizer -​ “Child of Revolution” Napoleon Bonaparte - Rise to Power -​ France engaged in wars on several fronts -​ Military victories increase Napoleon’s popularity -​ The directory fails to address the economic and political situation in France The Siege of Toulon, August 28 - Dec 19, 1793 -​ Toulons occupied by enemy forces -​ Site of strategic military importance -​ Napoleon responsible for reclaiming city -​ Demonstrated Napoleon’s tactical and strategic brilliance 13 Venvermaire - October 5, 1795 -​ Discontent with directory -​ Royalists seek to return to monarchy -​ Napoleon was tasked with stopping monarchy -​ Napoleon tasked with stopping uprising against directory -​ Outnumbered, but successful -​ Demonstrated ability to handle civil unrest Coupe of 18 Brumaire - 9 November 1799 -​ Coup D’etat - The forcible overthrow of a government by the armed force -​ Orchestrated by Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, Lucien Bonaparte, and Napoleon -​ This leads to a new government (see: Consulate) -​ Napoleon maned 1st console (Head of Government) Consolidation of Power And Public Support 1.​ Napoleonic Code 2.​ Concordat 3.​ Peacekeeping Context: Concordat 1801 -​ De-Christianization of France during the Revolution -​ Destruction of religious iconography, Seizure of church property -​ Removal of Church privileges The Concordat of 1801 -​ Agreement between Pope Pius VII -​ Reconciliation between church and state -​ Attempt to gain support and legitimacy for Napolean government -​ Re-established Catholic Church in France -​ Papacy recognized Napoleon's regime -​ Catholics in France were comfortable supporting Napoleon Treaty of Amiens -​ The peace agreement between France and Great Britain -​ France/Great Britain return conquered territories -​ Resumed diplomatic relations between countries The Napoleonic Code 1804 -​ Codification - compelling rules and laws into an orderly, formal code -​ Unified French Law -​ Simple, clear, and accessible -​ Affirmed Basic civil rights (see: freedom of consciousness and equality) -​ Promoted legal equality Economic Reforms -​ Established Bank of France (1800) to stabilize the economy and manage freedom -​ Introduced a new tax system to ensure consistent revenue -​ Financed infrastructure projects to boost trade Educational Reforms: The Lycee system -​ State-run secondary schools -​ Trained future leaders for government, military,and civil service -​ Introduced merit-based advancement Napoleon becomes 1st Emperor of France, in 1804 The Napoleonic wars - overview -​ 1803-1815 -​ Continuous series of major conflicts -​ Reshaped Europe The Coalitions -​ Coalition - a group of countries working together against a common enemy or to achieve a common goal -​ Coalition Key Players Shared Objective First Coalition Austria, Prussia, Britain To stop the resolution and restore the monarchy Second Coalition Britain, Austria, Prussia To stop France’s expansion under Napoleon The Napoleonic Wars - Rationale 1.​ Defend Revolutionary forces 2.​ Expand the French Empire 3.​ Undermine Britain The Continental System (1806) -​ Continental system - economic system imposed by France that prohibited thread between France's allies and Great Britain -​ Economic policy designed to weaken Europe -​ Encouraged boycott of British imports -​ Sought to establish France as the main trading partner with European nations Failure of the Continental System 1.​ England developed new Markets (see: South Africa) 2.​ System favoured French goods 3.​ Required further territorial gains in Europe 4.​ Angered other European nations (see:Russia) The Spanish Campaign - Peninsular war/Guerra De LA Independencia 1808-1814 -​ Napoleon disposes Spanish king. PLaces brother on throne -​ Spanish resist French rule -​ Resistance supported by England -​ Guerrilla warfare - small groups attacking unexpectedly, avoiding direct battles, and wearing down the enemy over time -​ Use of Guerilla Warfare Tactics -​ Brutal and draining campaign -​ France eventually driven out of Spain (1814) The Russian Campaign (1812) -​ Napoleon invades Russia (June 1812) -​ Aim: Punish Tsar Alexander I for breaking the Continental system -​ Begins with 600,000+ “Grand Army” -​ Russian army doesn’t engage directly. Retreat int interior -​ Adopt of “scorching earth” policy -​ Harsh/early winter + no food/resources = disaster -​ Napoleon reached Moscow in September 1812. Finds city abandoned/burned by Russians -​ Napoleon is forced to retreat -​ Thousands of soldiers froze, starved, or were killed on return -​ Turning point in Napoleonic wars -​ Weakened army/reputation -​ Encouraged other European countries to fight against Napoleon (see: the sixth Coalition 1813-1814) Battle of Leipzig -​ October 16-19, 1813 -​ The 6th Coalition of European power defeats Napoleon’s army -​ Largest battle of the 19th century Exhile to Elba -​ Coalition forces cpature Paris in 1814 -​ Forces Napoleon to abdicate/surrender -​ Exhiled to Elba. Monarchy restored to Louis XVIII instituted as King of France The Congress of Vienna, Nov 1, 1814 - June 8, 1815 -​ Diplomatic conference -​ Attended by reps of European powers -​ Determined “shape of Europe”. Maintain stability -​ Chair: Prince Klemers von Metternich (Austria) Escape form Elba February 16, 1815 -​ Leaves island on ship disguised as a merchant vessel -​ Lands near Cannes -​ Begins march towards Paris. Gains support enroute The 100 Days, March 20,1815 - July 8, 1815 -​ Napoleon arrives in Paris (March 20, 1815), King flees -​ Napoleon reclaims throne -​ Europea powers unite against him (see: the Seventh Coalition) Battle of Waterloo June 18, 1815 -​ 7th Coalition meet Napoleon at Waterloo -​ Napoleon defeated and surrenders -​ Exhiled to St.Helena. Dies The Congress of Vienna - Outcomes 1.​ Restoration of European Monarchies (legitimacy) 2.​ Restoring the balance of Power 3.​ Create a system of Alliance (Concert of Europe) The Congress of Vienna- Outcomes - Legitimacy -​ Promoted the “principle of legitimacy” -​ Legitimate = ruled before Napoleon -​ Restored traditional monarchies (see: Spain, Portugal, Frame, etc) The Congress of Vienna - Outcomes - Restoring Balance of Power -​ Prevent one country form dominating Europe -​ Redrew the map of Europe to ensure power more evenly distributed -​ France contained by new buffer states (see: Kingdom of the Netherlands) The Congress of Vienna - Outcomes - The Concert of Europe -​ Informal alliances of “ Great Powers of Europe” -​ Regular meeting -​ Address conflicts diplomatically instead of through war Context: England Prior To The Industrial Revolution -​ Primarily agrarian economy -​ Cottage industries and small0scale handicraft common -​ Simple tools were used to produce goods -​ Limited environmental impact/consequences of economic activities Industrialization: The change from an agrarian-based(farming) economy to one based on manufacturing and services The Industrial Revolution - Overview -​ Occurred between 1750-1851 -​ Started in England -​ Period of rapid industrialization and technological advancement -​ Agrarian and handicraft economy -> industry and machine manufacturing dominatedthe economy Contributing Factors 1.​ Agricultural changes 2.​ Technological Advancement 3.​ Access to resources and markets Agricultural Changes -​ New Technology and practises (see: Crop rotation, seed drill, selection breeding, etc) -​ Reduced risk of famine from food supplies -​ Increased life expectancy = population explosion Technological Advancement And Consumer Demands -​ New material, new sources of energy, and new machinery (see: steam engine, flying shuttle, water frame, etc) -​ Increased productivity and efficiency in various industries -​ Great demand for cotton products Access to Resources and Markets -​ Easy access to coal and iron ore. Plentiful deposits in Great Britain -​ Proximity of resources to industrial, resources, and workforce -​ Vast colonial empire = access to markets, resources, and workforce The Birth of the Factory Economy - Major Industrial Centres -​ Proximity to power sources (ex: water and coal) -​ Urban centres for the supply of labour/market -​ Transportation system (ex: water, canals and railways) Urbanization -​ Overcoming - pressure on housing, infrastructure, and public services -​ Inadequate housing - Absence of building codes -​ Lack of Sanitation - no/few bathrooms, running water -​ Social problems - social tensions, high crime rates Structure -​ Logical for employers ti gather workers in a single location -​ Factories established in urban areas -​ Reorganization of production by breaking down skilled trades into tasks -​ Employee-employer relationship altered. Depersonalization -​ Skills lost and pay lowered because of a division of labour -​ Exploitation of working-class common Factory Working Conditions -​ Monotonous Repetitive tasks  -​ Long hours, low pay, dangerous, conditions, and lack of governmental control -​ Employment of women and young children common Worker Resistance -​ Trade unions formed to protect worker’s rights, improve wages and working hours -​ Engaged in collective bargaining -​ Organized strikes and protests Worker Resistance: Luddism -​ Occurred between 1811-1817 -​ Social movement/form of resistance -​ Northern England -​ Involved machine breaking and factory raids The Industrial Novel -​ Popular form of entertainment and social analysis -​ Depicted social and economic impact of industrialization -​ Critical of realities of the Industrial Age The Industrial Novel- Characteristics 1.​ Portrayal of the Working Class - describes the realities of the working class during the Industrial Revolution 2.​ Exploration of social inequalities - depicted the divide between social class and wealthy elite, raised ethical questions 3.​ Critiques of Industrialization - Critiqued negative the impact industrialization on human well-being and social fabric 4.​ Loss of Connection to Nature - Portrayed a sense of nostalgia for a simpler, rural way of life