History 1 (1-17, 19-22) PDF

1.Name and describe the ideas of Enlightenment. Enlightenment - was a late 17th- and 18th-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism. Enlightenment thinkers were similar to today’s liberals. They were typically humanists who supported equality and human dignit...

1.Name and describe the ideas of Enlightenment. Enlightenment - was a late 17th- and 18th-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism. Enlightenment thinkers were similar to today’s liberals. They were typically humanists who supported equality and human dignity. They stood opposed (стояли против) to supernatural occurrences, superstition, intolerance, and bigotry. The goals of rational humanity were considered to be knowledge, freedom, and happiness. During the enlightenment, it was believed that human reasoning can easily help in discovering truths about the world. The method of reason was also applied to the religion and even new religion was founded, namely Deism. Enlightenment period started revolutionary developments in art, philosophy, and politics. 2. What is meant by «enlightened absolutism»? Enlightened absolutism - is a form of government in the 18th century in which absolute monarchs pursued legal, social, and educational reforms inspired by the Enlightenment. The most famous representatives in Austria are Maria Theresia and her son Joseph II. They typically started administrative reform, religious toleration, and economic development but did not propose reforms that would undermine their sovereignty or disrupt the social order. 3. Name and describe major reforms of Maria Theresia and Joseph II. Maria Theresia and Joseph II implemented a lot of important reforms, such as - Military reform: size of army and number of o cers increased. Also was opened a military academy ffi  - Financial: taxes for nobles for the rst time and overall others nancial reforms considerably improved the state nances - Educational: new school system and school became mandatory for children and also change of language from Latin to German - Religion: they tried to limit the power of the Church and connect it to the government - Medicine: centralization of medical care in Vienna through the construction of a single, large hospital - Social: abolition of serfdom (Joseph II) (?) 4. What is meant by the term «Josephinism»? Josephinism is the name of the collective domestic policies of Joseph II, during the ten-year-period in which he was the sole ruler of the Habsburg Monarchy (1780–1790), he attempted to implement a series of reforms to remodel Austria in the form of what liberals saw as an ideal Enlightened state. 5. What impact did the Industrial revolution? The Monarchy experienced the rst wave of industrialization during the rst half of the 19th century, which was later than all other countries. At that time textile industry was the leading one in development and relied on the steam engine and mechanization. Communications were revolutionized by the development of steam- powered transport: the steamboat and the railway. The rst railway in the Europe was introduced, however it was short. But later on the bigger railway was introduced and other routes from Vienna was established. That a Rothschild was a pioneer in two of the Monarchy’s most important sectors, railways and iron. However, even though the industrialisation in Austria was not as fast, the government’s industrial and commercial policy was progressive. fi fi fi fi fi fi The authorities were focused on giving useful, technical knowledge: many of Austria’s most prestigious technical institutes, such as the Viennese Polytechnikum (the later Technische Hochschule), were founded in this period. Also, Jewish entrepreneurs became major investors in industry and commerce, especially in leading growth sectors such as cotton. 6. What historical signi cance of the French Revolution? Which lasting and not permanent changes did it bring about? The French Revolution was one of the most signi cant things in world history. Starting in the summer of 1789, revolutionary ideas spread across France, then Europe and beyond, questioning existing institutions and traditions and supporting new ideas about government, liberty, and citizenship. The French Revolution completely changed the social and political structure of France. It put an end to the French monarchy, feudalism, and took political power from the Catholic church. Although the revolution ended with the rise of Napoleon, the ideas and reforms did not die. They inspired other people to see democracy and independence. Which was a major result of the French Revolution? The result of the French Revolution was the end of the monarchy. The French Revolution initiated the movement toward the modern nation-state and played a key role in the birth of nationalism across Europe. During the French Revolution, hereditary aristocracy was overthrown with the slogan “liberty, equality, fraternity” and France became the rst state in history to grant universal male su rage. The French Revolution had a deep impact on neighboring countries. The French Revolutionary armies during the 1790s, and later under Napoleon, invaded and controlled Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Switzerland and parts of Germany. The French invasion of these territories removed the legal and economic barriers that had protected the nobility, clergy, guilds and urban oligarchies. fi ff fi fi Instead the principle of equality before law was established. The Revolution thus destroyed the power of oligarchies and elites that opposed economic change. Evidence suggests that areas that were occupied by the French and that underwent radical institutional reform experienced more rapid urbanization and economic growth, especially after 1850. The arrival of new economic and industrial opportunities in the second half of the 19th century then resulted in more economic growth of Europe. Europe was consumed by the French Revolutionary (1792–1802) and Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). The French Revolution e ectively ended Austria's experiment with modernity and reform from Maria Theresia, and marked a return to legitimacy. ——— Revolutionary France proposed greater threat to the Habsburg Monarchy. This was at heart a dynastic enterprise, ruling various territories populated by many ethnic groups. A modern nation-state based on popular sovereignty such as revolutionary France was Austria’s ideological rival. The French revolutionary threat e ectively ended any hope of resuming Austria’s own attempt at reform from above. Initially the impact of the French Revolution on Austria appeared minor. The events in Paris after 1789 had not prevented Leopold II propose further reforms. Later on, however, there was several wars between revolutionary France and Austria. In April 1792, revolutionary France declared war on Austria. It lasted for 5-years and in the end Austria make a peace on an unfavourable conditions. In 1799 Austria declared another wars to France, but also lost it (defeated). Because French domination of Germany raised the possibility that Napoleon Bonaparte or one of his subordinates could be elected Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold's son, Franz II (r. 1792- 1835), took two steps to protect Habsburg interests. First, to guarantee his family's continued ff ff imperial status, he adopted a new, hereditary title, Emperor of Austria, in 1804, thus becoming Franz I of Austria. Second, to preclude completely the possibility of Napoleon's election, in 1806 he renounced the title of Holy Roman Emperor and dissolved the Holy Roman Empire. Again in 1809 Austria declared another wars to France, but lost it one more time (defeated). In the wake of this defeat, Franz appointed a new foreign minister, Clemens von Metternich, who sought peace with France. He accomplished this by arranging a marriage between Franz's daughter, Marie Louise, and Napoleon, who was eager for the prestige of marriage into one of the principal dynasties of Europe and the creation of an heir. The marriage took place in the spring of 1810 but yielded little immediate return for Austria. 7. Explain the origin of the «Empire of Austria» 1804! When Napoleon crowned himself emperor, Francis I responded by declaring himself Austrian emperor in an o cial ceremony even though there was no coronation. The adoption of the title was really an admission of defeat and the end of the traditional world picture on which Habsburg's power and authority had rested. This was a clear challenge to the Habsburgs and to the old feudal order of Europe. The Holy Roman Empire itself no longer looked guaranteed to elect Habsburgs, and its survival was questionable. Such considerations led to Francis II declaring himself Francis I, rst ‘emperor of Austria’ on 11 August 1804. The imperial title did not in fact create a new, uni ed Austrian Empire. It applied to all lands ruled by ‘Austria’, de ned as the House of Habsburg. The imperial title was of dubious legal standing and ignored traditional institutions. 8. Describe the causes and course of the fall of the Holy Roman Empire 1806! The major reason why the Holy Roman Empire ended was the consequences of the French Revolution. fi fi ffi fi By the 16th century the empire was so decentralised that it was little more than a loose federation. With the French Revolution, and the intensi ed nationalism that followed, it became an anachronism. By the time of the 18th century was widely regarded as a highly "irregular" monarchy and "sick", having an "unusual" form of government. The empire lacked both a central standing army and a central treasury and its monarchs, formally elective rather than hereditary, could not exercise e ective central control. It looked like a conglomeration of largely independent states. Napoleon in 1806 wanted to oust (витіснити) Francis II from his title and to make the Holy Roman Empire a part of the Napoleonic “new order.” Although the empire defended itself quite well initially, war with France and Napoleon was catastrophic. In 1804, Napoleon proclaimed himself as the Emperor of the French, which Francis II responded to by proclaiming himself the Emperor of Austria, in addition to already being the Holy Roman Emperor, as an attempt to maintain equality between France and Austria while also illustrating that the Holy Roman title outranked them both. Then, after the Austria’s defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz in December 1805 and formation of the Confederation of the Rhine(was a confederation of German client states established by the idea of Napoleon some months after he defeated Austria and Russia at the Battle of Austerlitz.), meant the end of the Holy Roman Empire. The abdication in August 1806, combined with a dissolution of the entire imperial hierarchy and its institutions, was seen as necessary to prevent the possibility of Napoleon proclaiming himself as Holy Roman Emperor, something which would have reduced Francis II to Napoleon's vassal. 9. What are the results of the Congress of Vienna ending in 1814/15? The Congress of Vienna - an international diplomatic conference to remake the European political order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon I. It was a meeting of ambassadors of European ff fi  states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815. In the agreement, France lost all its recent conquests, while Prussia, Austria and Russia made major territorial gains. In particular, Austria gained Venice and much of northern Italy. In Germany, although the Holy Roman Empire was not recovered, Austria became president of the new German Confederation, even though Prussia was still larger than before. What the Congress of Vienna did not achieve for Austria was a return to the traditional structures and loyalties and a regain of legitimacy and authority. What the Congress could not do was to recover the old order on which Austrian and Habsburg authority had rested. Finally, the congress established an international political order that continued for nearly 100 years and that brought Europe a measure of peace. 10. What is meant by Biedermeier period? The Biedermeier period was an era in Central Europe between 1815 and 1848 during which the middle class grew in number and the arts appealed to common sensibilities. It began with the Congress of Vienna at the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and ended with the start of the Revolutions of 1848. The term it is used mostly to denote the artistic styles that ourished in the elds of literature, music, the visual arts and interior design. It has in uenced later styles, especially those originating in Vienna. There were two driving forces for the development of the period. One was the growing urbanization and industrialization leading to a new urban middle class, which created a new kind of audience for the arts. The other was the political stability under Klemens von Metternich following the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna. The e ect was for artists and society in general to concentrate on the domestic and the non-political. Writers, painters, and musicians began to stay in safer territory, and the emphasis on home life for the growing middle class. fl ff fi fl In Biedermeier painting, the image of everyday scenes was the main one, the paintings were very close to nature. 11. Describe «Deutscher Bund» (German Union/ Confederation) German Confederation - an alliance of German states, established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The congress made no e ort to restore the Holy Roman Empire and its states. Instead, it accepted the disappearance of many small states that had occurred since 1789 and created the German Confederation. It was basically a military alliance to defend Germany against external attacks and internal riots. It was a loose political group, formed for mutual protection, against French ambitions. Austria and Prussia lay partly within and partly outside the Confederation. The Austrian chancellor Metternich was the architect of the Confederation and made a great in uence in it through the diet in Frankfurt, with an Austrian always serving as president. Also, he started a long campaign to prevent the spread of revolution in Europe by seeking to restore much of the political and social order that had existed before the French Revolution. 12. What characterizes the policy of the State Chancellor Metternich in Austria? Metternich was the greatest politician and an able diplomat of his time. He introduces a new system of administration which saw its presence not only in the Austrian Empire but in other countries of Europe as well. This new system is famous as the ‘system of Metternich’. He set some principles to guide the polities of Europe and he always tried to implement his system with all his power. He was a great opponent of changes, reforms, constitutions, and liberalism. By nature, he was a follower of the policy of ‘status quo’. He was extremely smart and did everything for the peace and prosperity of Austria. Marriage between Napoleon and daughter of Fransics I to have more time for stability and so on. fl ff The Congress of Vienna if a great example of his policy and smart power. He every time put Austria rst. In Austria he always wished to created a great government, but it was hard to do, because every time he was stopped by either the emperor or something else. ——— The 33 years after the end of the Napoleonic Wars are called in Austria—and to some extent in all of Europe—the Age of Metternich. The chief characteristics of this age are the start of the Industrial Revolution, an intensi cation of social problems brought on by economic cycles of boom and bust, an increasingly mobile population, more demands for popular participation in government, and the rise of nationalism with the social, political, and international status quo. He based his social and political policies on coherent principles of orderly and cautious change and his diplomatic policies on maintaining stability by convincing the great powers of their mutual interests in preserving the European order as it then existed. ——— In domestic matters, Metternich may have desired good government, but his reputation as an oppressor gained considerable credence after 1815. Protests against conservative policies by a gathering of German students in 1817 and the assassination of a conservative playwright in 1819 led to the adoption of a set of laws placing Austrian universities under strict control. Harsh censorship was established. Teachers, writers, and students suspected of liberal views were blacklisted throughout Germany and Austria. Whereas Metternich’s name is often equated with oppression, he in fact didn't want to establish harsh rules in his own state or in others. Metternich believed that the best government was absolutism because it guaranteed equal justice and fair administration for all. In the Habsburg monarchy, he started reforms that would provide good government for the people. Even though the main focus was on political system, the monarchy was also thriving in economical and social matters. fi fi  By the 1820s Austria was experiencing its rst sustained industrial development. Production of coal, cotton textiles, woolens, and foodstu s was growing at a faster rate than that of the previous times. Most people still lived on the land, but even there changes were under way. As growing cities created markets for more and more agricultural goods, producers began to focus on agriculture for pro t. Along with industrial crops such as sugar beets and ax, old crops such as wheat, vegetables, wine, and livestock were grown more and more for the commercial market. The social impact of these changes in agriculture became clearly apparent in 1848, when the nal cancel of serfdom was encouraged by some of the landholding nobility, who were relying more and more on wage labour and no longer wanted the obligations associated with having serfs. Aiding these new economic e orts were the beginnings of an Austrian infrastructure of railroads and water transport. The rst railroad on the European Continent appeared between Linz and Budweis (now Czech Republic); In 1836 work began on a steam railway heading north from Vienna, and by 1848 the monarchy contained more than 1,600 km of track. Canals were not a feature of Habsburg transportation because of poor terrain, but steam navigation began on the Danube in 1830 and expanded quickly. 13. What do you mean by the term „Vormärz" (Pre-March)? Vormärz (or Pre-March in English) - was a period before the 1848 March Revolution in the states of the German Confederation. The beginning of the period is less well-de ned. Some place the starting point directly after the fall of Napoleon and the establishment of the German Confederation in 1815. Others, typically those who emphasise that as a period of political uprising, place the beginning at the French July Revolution of 1830. This period is also known as the Metternich era and in art - the Biedermeier. During this period, strong censorship policy measures were carried out in Austria and Prussia in response to calls for the liberalization of public and political life. ff fi ff fi fi fi fl fi 14. Describe the course of the revolution in 1848 in Austria! In 1848 and early 1849, Europe faced its most widespread revolutionary wave now often referred to as the Springtime of Nations or the Year of Revolution. The increasingly radical widespread protests a ected more than fty countries with France, the states of the German Confederation, Italy, and the Austrian Empire having the most important revolutions. Even though most of the revolutions of 1848 generally failed and led to the conservatives regaining power, they e ectively catalysed signi cant reforms in various European states. The nature of the Revolutions of 1848 in Austria may be classi ed into social, democratic-liberal, and national. The middle class liberals recognised that changes had to be made in the government. Outside Vienna, nationalism later became the principal drive behind the revolts. Also, Louis Kossuth’s call in Pest on 3 March for radical reform of the whole Monarchy was a further catalyst for the Viennese revolution, which in turn sparked revolution in Hungary and most other parts of the Monarchy, while also tressing the revolutions in Germany. On 13 March 1848, news of the Paris uprising reached Vienna and inspired crowds of people, mostly students and members of liberal clubs, to protest in the city to call for basic freedoms and a liberalisation of the regime. The government initially responded by calling out troops to suppress the crowds which resulted in serious clashes between the authorities and the people. To avoid further provocation of the crowds, the government dismissed Klemens von Metternich and promised to declare a constitution. 15. What demands were made in the 1848 revolution in Austria? Which one could be implemented, which one not? Between March and October 1848, revolution and counterrevolution surged in Vienna. In April, Emperor Ferdinand I issued a constitution that established an elected legislature. However, when the legislature met in June, it rejected the constitution towards the one that promised to be more democratic. By this time, the revolution began to weaken this allowed the Habsburgs and their advisers to regroup. ff ff fi fi fi  In October, the army successfully retook Vienna and executed a number of the city’s radical leaders. After this, the legislature moved to another city and continued to work on a constitution. Upon nishing the constitution, it was annulled and then dismissed by the emperor. Whilst the legislature failed to implement a working constitution in Austria, it issued a signi cant legislation with long- lasting in uence: the liberation of the peasantry. (Успело выдать важный закон - особождения от крестьянства) IMPORTANT The Revolutions of 1848 also a ected other ethnic groups in the Habsburg monarchy, such as the Hungarians who had long been motivated by nationalism. The Hungarian nobility started to work towards strengthening the national spirit since 1815, demanding the use of the Hungarian language rather than German. The events in Paris and Vienna helped to establish the Hungarian Diet that continued at Pest. In March 1848, the Hungarian Diet led by Lajos Kossuth demanded more reforms, civil liberties and far greater autonomy. Under liberal pressures from Vienna, Emperor Ferdinand I was forced to accept the changes enabling the Hungarians to create their own constitution known as the March Laws 16. What should have happened to the „,Deutschen Bund" (German Confederation) in the years 1848/49? How did it actually go further after the revolution in this oranization? Around the same time as revolutions in Austria in 1848 the revolutions in Germany started, both as the consequences of revolutions in Paris. During the attempts to unify German states (*by the Фридриха Вильгельма IV, который и сам подстрекал революцию в Германии, а потом воспользовался этим) the parliament divided into two groups, 1st - supported kleindeutsche (w/o Austria, promoted by King of Prussia) and 2nd - grossdeutsche (promoted by Austria and including it). The former favored o ering the imperial crown to Prussia. fi fl ff ff fi  During long discussion of this decision, the tension within the county increased and the situation became harder. Therefore, with the help of army, Friedrich Wilhelm gained his power in German Confederation. The Assembly belatedly (later than it should have happened) issued its Declaration of the Rights of the German People; a constitution was created (excluding Austria, which openly rejected the created parliament), and the leadership of the Reich was o ered to Friedrich Wilhelm. (The end for the rst part of the question) ——— An alliance of German sovereign states. At the Congress of Vienna (1815) the 38 German states formed a loose grouping to protect themselves against French ambitions. Austria and Prussia lay partly within and partly outside the Confederation. The Austrian chancellor Metternich was the architect of the Confederation and exercised a dominant in uence in it through the Federal Diet at Frankfurt, whose members were instructed delegates of state governments. As the rival power to Austria in Germany, Prussia tried to increase its in uence over other states by founding a federal customs union or Zollverein. In the Revolutions of 1848, a new assembly was elected to Frankfurt and tried to establish a constitutional German monarchy, but in 1849 the Austrian emperor refused the crown of a united Germany because it would loosen his authority in Hungary, while the Prussian king, Frederick William IV, refused it because the constitution was too liberal. The pre-1848 Confederation was get back, with Bismarck as one of Prussia's delegates. In 1866 Bismarck proposed that the German Confederation be reorganised to exclude Austria. fl fi fl ff  When Austria disagree, Bismarck declared the Confederation dissolved and went to war against Austria. In 1867, after Prussia's victory over Austria in the Austro-Prussian War (1866), the governments federated into the North German Confederation, with its capital in Berlin and its leadership in Prussia. The Confederation was nally dissolved after the victory of the Kingdom of Prussia in the Seven Weeks' War over the Austrian Empire in 1866. The dispute over which had the inherent right to rule German lands ended in favour of Prussia, leading to the creation of the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership in 1867, to which the eastern portions of the Kingdom of Prussia were added. 17. What characterizes the period of New Absolutism (Neoabsolutis mus)? The period 1849–60 is called the Neoabsolutist era because it was the last e ort by an Austrian emperor to provide good government by relying only on bureaucratic e ectiveness. In doing so, it was the legitimate descendant (потомок) of the governments of Joseph II and Metternich. The Neo-absolutists was a reactionary group of Austrian politics that was active from 1836 to 1867. The group supported an absolute monarchy and opposed all liberal reforms in the country; however, it supported religious freedom, a break from traditional ultra-conservative values. It is also the era of policies of Francis Joseph. Under Francis Joseph and Schwarzenberg (domain, prime minister, Шварценберг) order was restored. Neo-absolutism was another attempt to build Joseph II’s rational state, but without the enlightened idealism. The key goal was a foreign, not domestic policy: the Monarchy provided enough military power to maintain it power in the European state system. Neo-absolutism, in other words, was the culmination of the drive begun in 1740 to rationalize the Monarchy in order to maintain Habsburg prestige and power. ff fi ff  When Schwarzenberg died in April 1852, domestic policy found a most capable substitute in Alexander Bach, former revolutionary and now minister of the interior. The foundation of neo-absolutism’s domestic agenda was the acceptance of the emancipation of the peasantry and the legal equality of all subjects before the law, with the subsequent abolition of noble tax privileges, patrimonial jurisdiction and feudal dues. Neo-absolutism replaced these feudal arrangements with an e cient, centralized bureaucratic apparatus. For the rst (and last) time, all of the Monarchy was ruled directly from Vienna by a German-speaking o cialdom. Financial and educational positive changes were made at that time. European investors started to get their nances to Austria. Despite its many reforms, the regime never had the con dence in its own authority to establish the level of taxation needed to be a serious great power. 19. Describe the basic features of the December constitution 1867. In short: equality before the law for all people the end of all forms of serfdom (кріпацтво) freedom of the press freedom of religion freedom of assembly secrecy of correspondence The December Constitution of 1867, actually a set of ‘Basic Laws’, secured the basic liberties and norms of a constitutional state. A key provision was equality before the law for individuals regardless of religious confession, thus achieving full Jewish emancipation in Austria. The Basic Law of the Judiciary agreed on the separation of administration and judiciary and the independence of the courts. fi ffi fi fi ffi It also guaranteed the right of the people to participate in the administration of criminal justice; serious crimes would from now on require trial by jury. Last but not least, the Law established a system administrative courts, making executive acts of government subject to judicial review. The liberals established a true rule of law, by establishing an independent judiciary in 1869. This was complemented (дополнено) in 1875 by an Administrative Court for appeals against the o cialdom. The Army Act of 1868 also instituted signi cant military reforms, although Francis Joseph’s resistance frustrated full modernization. One of the greatest liberal achievements was the establishment of eight years of free compulsory education for all children. The laws provided stable growth of the economy. The Delegation Law a rmed and rati ed, for the Cisleithanian party to the con ict, the main outcome of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867: Cisleithania and Transleithania would act as a single monolithic entity for the purposes of international law; they would have a joint diplomatic service, a joint foreign o ce, and joint armed forces. Otherwise, the Kingdom of Hungary would be a fully independent separate country. 20. How has the economy performed in the second half of the 19th century? Liberalism was blooming at that time as well as the economy. The second half of the 19th century saw a lot of construction, expansion of cities and railway lines, and development of industry. Technological change increased industrialization and urbanization. Austria became an industrialized country, even though the Alpine regions remained characterized by agriculture. In contrast to agricultural workers and urban labourers, an increasingly- wealthy upper-middle class installed monuments and mansions. Vienna became one of the centres of development and a lot of buildings in Vienna were built at that time, including the Opera House, Town Hall, and Parliament. However, this continued until 1873, when Vienna prepared to host the World Exhibition, and everything looked great. However, then, on 9 May, the Stock Exchange crashed, and with it the liberals’ optimistic world view. It happened, because it was unable to sustain ffi fi ffi fi ffi fl the bubble of false expansion, insolvencies, and dishonest manipulations., and this crash also resulted in a Europe-wide recession. The economy eventually recovered, but scores of businesses were ruined and the core liberal claim to endless prosperity through economic freedom severely compromised. 21. Describe the social situation of the nobility, the citizens, the workers and the farmers in the time of constitutionalism! What was the role of women in these population groups? Limits were placed on working hours and on the use of child and female labour; a system of accident and sickness insurance for industrial workers was implemented Worker protections and insurance were much scantier for agricultural and forestry workers owing to Ta es’ support from conservative landowners. Education policy also satis ed conservative supporters rather than responding to modernisation’s needs. The Education Act of 1883 rolled back liberal reforms, allowing peasants once more to take their children out of school after only six years of schooling to work on the farm. 22. What characterises the con ict of nationalities in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy? The Austrians made attempts to give their other nationalities a share in the government of their half of the empire. The people controlled by the Austrians were the Poles, the Czechs, the Slovenes, the Ruthenians, and the Italians. The problem for the government was that when it introduced reforms to improve minority language or cultural rights, it drew opposition from the Germans and vice versa. This made reform very di cult. There was also a movement among many Germans that wanted to see the creation of a greater Germany. The major cause of di culty for the Austrian half of the empire was relations between the Czechs and the Germans in Bohemia. The industrialized and prosperous Czechs didn't like German domination, e.g. in the area of language. They hoped to see their position elevated to equality with that of the Germans and the Hungarians. They demanded the creation of a Triple Monarchy. ffi fi ffi fl ffi  The Prime Minister from 1879 until 1893 was Count Eduard Taa e. He ruled with support from a coalition of German, Polish and Czech Catholics and landowners. This was called the “Iron Ring”. Taa e’s government improved linguistic and cultural equality between the Czechs and Germans in Bohemia. However while successful in the short term, his reforms caused anger among the Germans who saw their position of political supremacy being undermined. The nationalist rivalry between the Czechs and the Germans became intense. Count Badeni, a Polish landowner (Prime Minister from1895 until 1897) introduced a reform proposing that every civil servant in Bohemia had to be uent in German and Czech. Whereas most educated Czechs could speak German, very few Germans could speak Czech (or any other language). This measure caused outrage, demonstrations and riots among Germans all over Austria. Badeni was forced out of o ce. In 1913 the constitution of Bohemia was suspended amid renewed inter-ethnic tension. There was also rivalry between Slovenes and Germans in Styria and Carniola. A dispute over the funding of Slovene language classes in a predominantly German town led to the resignation of the Prime Minister in 1895. Many Italians wished to join with Italy especially in the town of Trieste which was one of the largest cities in the Empire Universal male su rage was introduced in the Austrian half of the empire in 1907 partly as a result of pressure from the growing Social Democratic Party. The Emperor hoped that extending the right to vote would increase support for parties that supported the Empire and weaken nationalist parties. 23) Which political parties were formed in Austria in the 19th century? What were their main concerns? The Christian Social Party - was a major conservative political party connected with Austrian nationalism that sought to keep Catholic Austria out ff fl ff ffi ff  of the state of Germany (identi ed Austrians as Catholics and not Potestants as it was in Prussia) The Social Democratic Party of Austria - since foundation has been one of the main political forces in Austria. At the start of the First World War, it was the strongest party in parliament. The socialists went beyond national borders. The most interested party of all - as supporters of the working class - defending the rights of workers, for the rule of law, welfare and adult-education societies. Because of its nationality has become one of the monarchy's best hopes for survival. Di erent nationalistic parties. Slav and conservative parties in parliament - Badeni take up the Bohemian-language question. In April 1897 he issued a famous language ordinance that introduced Czech as a language equal to German even in the “inner service”—i.e., for communications within government departments. This decision meant that civil servants in Bohemia and Moravia would have to be able to speak and write Czech as well as German. Hungary - Magyar state - growing Magyar domination. Budapest has established control even over autonomous Croatia.Therefore, nationalists want even greater independence from Vienna. 24. How was been improved the social situation of workers in the period of constitutionalism? At that time were introduced some economic reforms. Between 1888 and 1892 a system of cooperative banks for farmers was organized, the taxation system was revised, Austrian currency was stabilized by a return to the gold standard, and the orin was replaced by the crown, which remained the Austrian currency until 1924. The Taa e government is also remembered for social-reform legislation; the laws of 1884: xed the maximum working day at 11 hours, banned the employment of children under 12, required a Sunday rest day for workers, and set up compulsory insurance against accidents and sickness. fi ff ff fi fl 25. What were the causes for the rst world war? What was the actual reason? The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878 showed Habsburg interests in Balkan a airs. Facing the possibility of con ict with Russia in this area, Austria-Hungary had looked for an ally, with the result that in 1879 Austria-Hungary and the German Empire had joined in the Dual Alliance, by which the two sovereigns promised each other support in the case of Russian aggression. Austria-Hungary received from Russia the promise that there would be no objection to a possible annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the future. Explicitly excluded from the agreement with Russia were Balkan con icts. When King Alexander of Serbia was assassinated in a military revolt in 1903 Serbian relations with the Habsburg monarchy became worse. The Serbs adopted an expansionist policy of unifying all South Slavs in the Serbian kingdom, and, in order to block a Serbian advance, the Habsburg monarchy applied economic pressure. In 1906 all livestock imports from Serbia into Austria-Hungary were prohibited. This con ict, the so-called Pig War, did not crush Serbia but rather pushed it into the Russian camp. National strife broke out all over the monarchy, and parliamentary activities were all but blocked by libustering and the riotous activities of the deputies Obstruction in parliament continued. The Germans, in control of the government and the central administration, continued to assign to the monarchy the role of an outpost of German culture; the Slavs increasingly wanted to make Austria the home of Slav national aspirations. A population count taken in 1910 more or less con rmed the Slav claim: out of the 28,324,940 inhabitants of the western half of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, nearly 36 percent regarded themselves as Germans, whereas more than 60 percent regarded themselves as Slavs. Such national di erences weakened the socialist position in the elections of 1911. ff fl ff fi fl fi fi fl German Nationalists during the elections became the biggest party and because of the con ict between germans and czechs it was impossible to stabilise situation and there were a lot of changes of ministers. During the Balkan Wars (1912–13), fought by the Balkan states over the remains of the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary twice tried to force Serbia to remove from positions gained by threatening it with an ultimatum. In February and October 1913, military action against Serbia was considered, but in both instances neither Italy nor Germany was willing to guarantee support. Austria-Hungary ultimately had to agree in Serbia’s territorial gains. THEREFORE When Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated by the Bosnian Serb nationalist at Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, the Austro-Hungarian foreign o ce decided to use the opportunity for a nal reckoning with the Serbian danger. The support of Germany was sought and received, and the Austro- Hungarian foreign o ce created an ultimatum putting the responsibility for the assassination on the Serbian government and demanding full satisfaction (was provocative indeed). Foreign Minister Berchtold and his government were clearly determined to make war on Serbia, regardless of the fact that such action might result in war between the Great Powers. While the European governments frantically tried to o er compromise solutions, Austria decided on a fait accompli. On July 28, 1914, Berchtold asked Franz Joseph to sign the declaration of war. In the meantime, the German government had taken control of the situation. Placing German strategic and national plans over Austro-Hungarian interests, Germany changed the Balkan con ict into a continental war by declaring war against Russia and France. In fact, the war was started by the monarchy in response to events in the Balkans. A reason to defend honor and prestige from an attack on core values. 26) Describe the process of the rst world war in general terms. ff fl ffi fi fi fl ffi Given the internal and external vulnerability of Austria-Hungary, the large- scale war in 1914 was an act of self-destruction as an independent great power. Austria-Hungary should have avoided war at all, because it needed a solution to its internal problems. World War I was between the Allied Powers and the Central Powers. The main members of the Allied Powers were France, Russia, and Britain. The United States also fought on the side of the Allies after 1917. The main members of the Central Powers were Germany, Austria- Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. The majority of the ghting took place in Europe along two fronts: the western front and the eastern front. The western front: a lot of the ghting along this front took place in France and Belgium. The eastern front was between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria on one side and Russia and Romania on the other. START 1914 The troops of the monarchy entered the war poorly trained and armed. 1. After the assassination, Austria declared war on Serbia. 2. Then Russia prepared to defend its ally Serbia. 3. Next, Germany declared war on Russia to protect Austria. 4. This caused France to declare war on Germany to protect its ally Russia. 5. Germany invaded Belgium to get to France which caused Britain to declare war on Germany. This all happened in just a few days. There were a lot of mistakes of the high command when faced with a war on two fronts against Serbia and Russia. fi fi The war, which was planned to end in a few months, began to take on a long lasting nature. However, in December, the Russians were stopped with the help of the Germans. By the end of 1914 the front stabilized, but the losses in the rst months of the war were catastrophic. ——— 1915 - is a year of mixed victories. In November 1915, in the Balkans, the joint Austro-German army, with the help of Bulgaria nally got Serbia. ——— The middle part of the war, 1916 and 1917, was dominated by continued Trench Warfare in both the east and the west. Soldiers fought from dug-in positions, striking at each other with Machine Guns, Heavy Artillery, and Chemical Weapons. Though soldiers died by the millions in brutal conditions, neither side had any substantive success or gained any advantage. Also, in 1916 Romania joined the Russians in early August. In September 1916, they were already looking for peace. ——— 1917 USA in - Russia out The Lusitania, a luxury British passenger ship, is sunk by a German submarine. 1,195 civilians were killed. This act sparks international outrage and contributes to the United States joining the war against Germany. Despite the stalemate on both fronts in Europe, two important developments in the war occurred in 1917. In early April, the United States, angered by attacks upon its ships in the Atlantic, declared war on Germany. Then, in November, the Bolshevik Revolution prompted Russia to pull out of the war. fi fi  Formally won the war in the east. ——— Although both sides launched Renewed O ensives in 1918 in an all-or- nothing e ort to win the war, both e orts failed. The ghting between exhausted troops continued until the Germans lost a number of individual battles and very gradually began to fall back. A deadly outbreak of In uenza, meanwhile, took heavy tolls on soldiers of both sides. Eventually, the governments of both Germany and Austria-Hungary began to lose control as both countries experienced multiple revolutions within their military structures. The war ended in the late fall of 1918 after the member countries of the Central Powers signed Armistice Agreements one by one. Germany was the last, signing it on November 11, 1918. As a result of these agreements. Austria-Hungary was broken up into several smaller countries. Germany, under the Treaty Of Versailles, was severely punished with hefty economic reparations, territorial losses, and strict limits on its rights to develop militarily. The o cial end of the armed confrontation, which lasted more than four years, is the date of the signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty (June 28, 1919). It was attended by England, France, the United States on the one hand and Germany. The consequences can be considered signi cant changes that have occurred on the political map and in the world economy. They also include the fact that the too di cult conditions of the Versailles Peace for Germany created the preconditions for a second large-scale world armed con ict. fi ffi ff ffi fl ff ff fi fl  27. What are the territorial and political changes brought about the end of the rst world war for the Austro-Hungarian monarchy? (27) Какие территориальные и политические изменения привели к концу Первой мировой войны за Австро-Венгерскую монархию?) From the summer of 1917, the activities of the nationalist movements within the empire made the situation increasingly tension. Two days before U.S. Pres. Woodrow Wilson proclaimed his Fourteen Points —one of which demanded the reorganization of the Habsburg monarchy in accordance with the principles of national autonomy—the Czechs demanded independence (January 6, 1918). Within a month Polish and South Slav deputies, together with the Czechs, presented to the Reichsrat a program demanding the establishment of independent constituent assemblies for nationally homogeneous areas. As World War I raged and the national independence movement reached its nal stage, another destabilizing movement became clear. From 1915 on, the supply situation had worsened increasingly, and by January 1918 there were dangerous shortages, especially of food. Caused by the di cult food situation and inspired by the Bolshevik victory in Russia a strike movement developed in the Habsburg lands. Demands for more bread and a demand for peace were combined with nationalist claims resulting in open opposition to the government. The strikes among the civilian population were followed by unrests in the army and navy. In January and February 1918 the army and the government succeeded in suppressing the social unrest and antiwar demonstrations. But, from the same date, the national opposition movement became much wider and powerful As it became apparent that the Allied powers would win World War I, nationalist movements, which had previously been calling for a greater degree of autonomy for various areas, started pressing for full independence. The Emperor had lost much of his power to rule. "The Habsburg regime's doom was sealed when Wilson's response to the note, sent two and a half weeks earlier, arrived on 20 October." Wilson rejected the continuation of the dual monarchy as a negotiable possibility fi fi ffi As one of his Fourteen Points, President Woodrow Wilson demanded that the nationalities of Austria–Hungary have the "opportunity to autonomous development". In response, Emperor agreed to reconvene the Imperial Parliament in 1917 and allow the creation of a confederation with each national group exercising self-governance. However, the leaders of these national groups rejected the idea; they deeply distrusted Vienna and were now determined to get independence. Then, Emperor Karl issued a proclamation ("Imperial Manifesto of 16 October 1918»), but it which would have signi cantly altered the structure of the Austrian half of the monarchy. It was a dead letter. Four days later, on 18 October, United States Secretary of State Robert Lansing replied that the Allies were now committed to the causes of the Czechs, Slovaks and South Slavs. The Lansing note was, in e ect, the death certi cate of Austria–Hungary. The national councils had already begun acting more or less as provisional governments of independent countries, especially looking at the defeat in the war. On 3 November the Habsburg authorities signed an armistice, but by then the Monarchy had basically ended it’s existence. On November 11, 1918, he issued a proclamation acknowledging “in advance the decision to be taken by German Austria” and stating that he relinquished all part in the administration of the state. The declaration of November 11 marks the formal dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy. 28. What was the economic and political situation of Germany Austria and the First Republic after the rst world war? GERMANY AUSTRIA After the end of WWI nowhere was the change as radical as in formerly Habsburg Central Europe. It was replaced by what were supposed to be ‘nation-states’. Some territories were hived o to neighbouring nation-states: Italy, Romania and Poland. Much of the Monarchy’s southern lands went to the new kingdom of Yugoslavia. Three states were created out of the whole cloth of the Monarchy: Hungary, Czechoslovakia and ‘German Austria’. The Republic of ‘German Austria’ was founded on 12 November 1918, by an assembly of the Reichsrat’s German members. From its beginning it was regarded as that part of the Monarchy that was left over ECONOMIC situation ff ff fi fi fi From the rst day after establishment, the republic was faced with the disastrous heritage of the war. Four years of war and the breakup of the Habsburg empire had brought economic exhaustion and chaos. POLITICAL situation More dangerous was the tendency of the states to break away from Vienna or to claim almost complete independence. November 1918, in an atmosphere of revolution, the Social Democrats demanded a republic. Were made elections and formed a new government with new departments. Most Austrians in 1918-1919 did not want an Austrian republic. They viewed German Austria as a stepping stone to integration into the larger German Republic. March 12, 1919 the constituent assembly proclaimed that German Austria was part of the German Republic. Allies (Atlanta), especially France, did not allow this and vetoed it. Given the guilt and defeat of Germany in the war, it would be absurd if Germany became even bigger and stronger. FIRST REPUBLIC There was a lot of problems with national currency as well as with supply of products and coal from Hungary, Italy, Yugoslavia. The main task of the nonsocialist governments in power from the autumn of 1920 was to restore nancial and economic stability. Between 1919 and 1921 Austria’s urban population lived largely on relief from the United States and Great Britain, and, although production improved, distress was heightened by in ation that threatened nancial collapse in 1922. In October 1922 the chancellor, Ignaz Seipel, secured a large loan through the League of Nations, enabling Austrian nances to be stabilized. In return, Austria had to undertake to remain independent for at least 20 years. The controller general appointed by the League of Nations reported in December 1925 that the Austrian budget had been balanced satisfactorily, and in March 1926 international nancial supervision was withdrawn. fi fi fi fl fi fi Chancellor’s success in October 1922 gave Austria some years of stability and made economic reconstruction and relative prosperity possible. In socialist-controlled Vienna, an ambitious program of working-class housing, health schemes, and adult education was carried out. 29. Name the most important points of Woodrow Wilson 14 point plan on which a postwar world order should be designed after the rst world war. The Fourteen Points were a proposal made by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in a speech before Congress on January 8, 1918, outlining his vision for ending World War I. While half of the Fourteen Points addressed speci c territorial issues between the combatant countries, the remainder was a vision for peace. The 14 points included proposals to ensure world peace in the future: open agreements, arms reductions, freedom of the seas, free trade, and self-determination for oppressed minorities. Most important, they wanted to create an international organization to guarantee the independence and territorial integrity of all member countries (ground for the League of Nations) The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured should receive the broadest opportunity for autonomous development: political independence and territorial integrity of both large and small states. Recognition of the independence of all members of the monarchy. The regions of Hungary and Czechoslovakia were recognised. 30. Where were the main purpose of the peace treaties of Versailles and St. Germain? 1ST Treaty of Versailles, peace document signed at the end of World War I by the Allied and associated powers and by Germany in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, France, on June 28, 1919; it took force on January 10, 1920. fi fi The war guilt clause of the treaty deemed Germany the aggressor in the war and consequently made Germany responsible for making reparations to the Allied nations in payment for the losses and damage they had sustained in the war. The Big Four wanted to make sure that Germany would never again pose a military threat to the rest of Europe, and the treaty contained a number of stipulations to guarantee this aim. The German army was restricted to 100,000 men; the general sta was eliminated; the manufacture of armoured cars, tanks, submarines, airplanes, and poison gas was forbidden; and only a small number of speci ed factories could make weapons or munitions. All of Germany west of the Rhine and up to 50 km east of it was to be a demilitarized zone. The forced disarmament of Germany, it was hoped, would be accompanied by voluntary disarmament in other nations. The treaty included the Covenant of the League of Nations, in which members guaranteed each other’s independence and territorial integrity. 2ND Treaty of Saint-Germain - treaty concluding World War I and signed by representatives of Austria on one side and the Allied Powers on the other. It was signed at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, near Paris, on September 10, 1919, and came into force on July 16, 1920. The treaty o cially registered the breakup of the Habsburg empire, recognizing the independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia) The union of Austria with Germany was expressly forbidden without the consent of the Council of the League of Nations. Limitations for Austria long-service army up to 30 000 men and broke up the Austro-Hungarian navy, distributing it among the Allies. Also Austria was made liable for reparations, though no money was ever actually paid. According to the agreement, the name was changed from German Austria to Austria. Both this and the Versailles Treaty prohibited uni cation with Germany. ffi fi fi f For an Austrian, the worst crime in the Treaty of Saint Germain was to reward Italy not only with part of the Italian-speaking regions but also with the Karenti Canal and the German-speaking region of Tyrol. The rape of South Tyrol was a mockery of national self-determination. From then on, South Tyrol had to break the Austro-Italian relationship. Of the nearly ten and a half German Austrians, only slightly more than six and a half were in German Austria. The rest were outside.