Hist Unit 6 PDF

UNIT 6 Internal Developments and External Relations of Ethiopia and the Horn, 1800-1941 6.1.The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn ▪ At the beginning of the nineteenth century, many autonomous and semi- autonomous...

UNIT 6 Internal Developments and External Relations of Ethiopia and the Horn, 1800-1941 6.1.The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn ▪ At the beginning of the nineteenth century, many autonomous and semi- autonomous peoples and states existed in Ethiopia and the Horn. 6.1.1. Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia A. South-Central: Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata and Gurage were autonomous and semi-autonomous political entities during this period. ✓ Economically, they depended largely on agriculture. ✓ Local merchants were actively involved in local trade and to some extent in the long distance trade. ✓ Trade routes that connected the interior with the coast passed through these territories. ✓ Among these, the Gurage land was an important market centre and political entity. Important trade centers such as Soddo and Aymallel were located in the Gurage land. ✓ The Gurage had their own political organization and their leaders held the titles of Abegaz or Azmatch who combined political and military authority. ▪ In the second half of the nineteenth century, Qabena emerged as a strong political entity. It became a centre of Muslim revivalist movement to the northeast of the Gibe River. ▪ Stirred by Muslim refugees from Wollo, and with possible connections even with the Mahdist Sudan. B. The Gibe States: towards the beginning of the nineteenth century, several monarchical states (motumma) emerged among the Mecha Oromo at the expense of the Gadaa system. ✓ Many factors accounted for the transformation of the Gadaa system. ✓ In the process, the war leaders of the Gadaa system (Abba-Dula) and powerful individuals usurped the power of the Gadaa government. ✓ The abba-dula accumulated wealth from the control and taxation on long distance trade and utilized the opportunity to establish hereditary leadership. This led the birth five monarchical states among the Oromo around Gibe. i. Limmu-Enarya: Limmu-Enarya was the earliest of the Gibe states. It was founded through the incorporation of Enarya. ✓ Initially, Abbaa Dulas of Limmu like Tesso fought and defeated the rulers of Enarya like Badancho, Gu’amcho and Banaro at different times. ✓ Finally, Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825) established Limmu-Enarya. Bofo abdicated in favor of his son, Ibsa/Abba Bagiboo (1825-61). ✓ The Kingdom reached the height of its power during Ibsa’s reign, when he incorporated areas including Hagalo, Badi-Folla etc. Ibsa was succeeded by Abba Bulgu (1861-1883). ii. Gumma: Jilcha Abba Bal’oo of Chira killed Sarbaroda of Dagoye clan; began state formation and succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-1830) who was in turn followed by Jawwe (1840-1854). iii. Gomma: formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who was succeeded by his son Abba Manoo (1829-1840) who occupied Qattuu and converted to Islam by Muslim Ulama/scholars. iv. Jimma: Towards the late eighteenth century, Makahore emerged as an influential female figure among the Sadacha Mecha Oromo of Jimma. ✓ The local Abba Dula sought to take political power from her. Among the Abba Dulas, Ose Kobi (Abba Faro) was elected as a hereditary ruler against the Gadaa rule. He was succeeded by Dangila (Abba Magal) who enlarged the domain. ✓ The process of state formation was completed by Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55) who formed Jimma Kingdom and left a consolidated state to his successors like Abba Rebu (1855-59), Abba Boqa (1859-1861) and Abba Gomol(r.1861-75). ✓ The most famous among the Jimma monarchs was Abba Jifar II (c. r.1875-1934). Apart from agriculture and trade, the kingdom's economy depended on iron mining and smelting at Dakkano and Kito, respectively. v. Gera: was the last of the Gibe kingdoms to be formed. The process of state formation in Gera was completed during the reign of Tullu Gunji (r.1835-38), a successful war leader who made himself king. ✓ Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) succeeded Tullu Gunji after a short interlude by Abba Basso. ✓ Gera enjoyed its prosperity under Abba Magal who had been converted to Islam. As with other Gibe states, Gera attracted Muslim missionaries to preach Islam. C.The Leqa States ▪ Like in the Gibe region, several monarchical kingdoms evolved among the Mecha Oromo of Wallagga. Among these were the Leqa states, the Sibu and the Jawwi south of the Abbay River. ▪ While Moti Abishe established strong kingdom of Horro, a number of Abba Dulas declared themselves moti (king) by controlling profitable trade routes and large territories in the region west of the Gibe region. I. Leqa-Naqamte: was founded by Bakare Godana in 1840, and reached its height under his successors Moroda and Kumsa. ✓ The latter were able to establish strong monarchical state rich in trade and agriculture. ✓ Moti Kumsa (later Dejazmach Gebre-Egzi'abiher) was known for promoting handcraft work, gold washing, coffee planting and game reserves/hunting. ✓ The Leqa-Naqamte rulers instituted a new administrative structure and judicial hierarchy that replaced the Gadaa system known as sirna abba-qoro (qoro system). ✓ In its nature, the administration system was essentially kingship and was quite similar to feudal administration in its reliance on land. II. Leqa-Qellam: was located in southwestern Wallagga. It was founded by Tullu and became powerful under his son, Jote being centered at Gidami and controlling the areas around Sayyo-Dambi Dollo. D. Ilu: the Tume clan leader Chali Shono (also known as Abba Bor) set up the well- consolidated state of Ilu-Abba Bor in the early nineteenth century. It was one of the prosperous states in the region. ▪ Each Oromo monarchical state had officials like: ✓ Abba Gurmu (next person to the king), ✓ Abba Mizan (treasurer and foreign affair minister), ✓ Abba Dango (immigration chief), ✓ Lammi (ambassador/royal messenger), ✓ Abba Qoro (district governor), ✓ Abba Ganda (village chief), ✓ Abba Busi (tax head), ✓ Abba Jiga (murder judge) and Abba-Qawe (body-guard). ▪ Contrary to the Gadaa values that did not levy any kind of taxation, under monarchical systems farmers were forced to pay crop tax measured by traditional instruments called buchano (about 15 kilograms) and later guboo (25 kilograms) on each crop. E. Nilotic Sheikdoms: in the early nineteenth century, important Islamic centres emerged in the lower course of the Abbay. ✓ A number of Shiekdoms were established through parallel imposition of Arabic-speaking Sudanese mercantilists over Berta and Gumuz inhabitants. ✓ Among them, the Sheikhdoms of Assosa or Aqoldi, Bela Shangul and Khomosha were established to the south of Abbay River and the Sheikhdom of Guba emerged to the north. ✓ The four sheikhdoms were founded by Muslim leaders of Sudanese origin who considered themselves as ‘Watawit’. ✓ The term Watawit refers to Arabized Berta people who had entered and settled in Benishangul as traders and Islamic religious teachers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. ✓ The main economic bases of the sheikdoms were agriculture, gold mining and frontier trade. ✓ Among these sheikhdoms, Asosa got preeminence under Sheikh Khojale al Hasan. While Bela/Beni-Shangul became famous under Abd al Rahman Khojale, Khomosha reached its zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud. ✓ Similarly, Guba was founded to the north of the Abbay River along the Ethio-Sudanese border. The influence of Islam from the Sudan and cross border trade was the main reasons for the rise of these states. ✓ The rich gold of the region also attracted foreign powers like the Egyptians and Mahdists who attempted to control the sheikdoms at different times.  6.1.2.Trade and Trade Routes ▪ Although the trade routes which linked southwestern Ethiopia to the coast had medieval antecedents, it was in the 19th century that they attained particular prominence. ▪ This was partly because of the revival of external trade in the Red Sea region. As a result, trade became one means of maintaining strong relations across peoples of different areas and backgrounds. ▪ During this period, two main trade lines linked various territories of Ethiopia and the Horn. ▪ One route originated from Bonga, the capital of Kafa Kingdom, linked peoples and states of the southwestern Ethiopia with the northern part of the Ethiopian region. ✓ The main market centers along this line were Bonga, Hirmata (in Jimma), Saqa (in Limmu), Billo (in Leqa-Naqamte), Asandabo (in Guduru), Basso-Yajube (in Gojjam),Yifag and Darita (in Begemider) and Gondar. ✓ From Gondar, one line bifurcated to westward through Chilga to Matamma- Qallabat (Gallabat) taking commodities to be sold to the Sudanese merchants called Jallaba. ✓ The other route passed through Adwa, Asmara and entered Massawa. Still another split at Basso to move via Ancharro and Dawwe in Wollo and Awusa in Afar to Tajura, Obbok and Rahe’ita in Djibouti. ▪ The second major trade route also began from Bonga and passed through Hirmata to Agabja-Andode-Toli to Soddo in southwest Shewa; Rogge near Yerer. ▪ Then, the line passed through Aliyu Amba or Abdul Rasul in northern Shewa and ran eastward to Harar. From Harar, the route branched into Zeila and Berbera, the most important commercial centers in Somalia. Then Ethiopian products were mostly sold in the Middle East. ▪ In the trade between the interior and the coast, varieties of items were exchanged. ▪ The main sources of exported items were the southwestern regions. Among these were gold, ivory, rhinoceros horn, skins, civet, musk, honey, wax, coffee, various spices and slaves. ▪ Slaves were either raided or bought from different parts of Ethiopia and exported to Arabia, Persia and India. Likewise, imported products included mirrors and ironware. ▪ The major medium of exchange were salt bars (amole), iron bars, wines, cowries’ shells, beads, pieces of cotton cloth (abujadi), Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT), etc. ▪ For internal trade, amole was the major important commodity and source of wealth. It was mined in the Afar plains bordering eastern Tigray where it was also suitably shaped for transportation. ▪ The town of Mekelle prospered as the salt was cut in and distributed to the highlands from the area under the supervision of the governor of Enderta with the title of Balgada, who collected the tributes as tax judge, and grew in importance and rivaling the Bahre-Negash (the governor of the maritime province to the north). ▪ MTT was a coin introduced from Austria to the Horn of African region at the end of the 18th century. On the Red Sea Coast, MTT was used with other kinds of European and Middle Eastern coins. ▪ Diverse peoples of different ethnic and religious background were involved in the trade. At each market center, local peoples were active traders. ▪ However, Muslim merchants were the most dominant that traveled from interior to the coast. Among these were northern Muslim merchants (Jabarti) and Muslim Oromo merchants of southwestern region known as Afqala. ▪ Similarly, the Argoba from the Kingdom of Shewa were active merchants in the trade between Harar and the northern Somali coast. 6.2. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State  State building remained an agenda of several powerful individuals and groups, the difference was the level of their strength and ambition, and their relations with foreign powers.  The making of the modern Ethiopian state went through two distinct phases.  The first one involved unifying different regions and peoples in north and north central parts of Ethiopia.  The second phase involved territorial expansion into the southern parts of the country. A.The Process of Territorial Unification ❖ The territorial unification ushered in a revival of the imperial power which had declined during the Zemene-Mesafint. ❖ A leading figure in the overall process was Kasa Hailu of Quara who later became Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia, the man who ended the Zemene Mesafint. ✓ Kasa’s mission to create a unified state goes back to his time when he was a shifta. ✓ He started his career by assisting his half−brother, Dejjazmach Kinfu in defeating the Egyptians at Wad Kaltabu (in present day eastern Sudan) in 1837. During this time, he acquired military and political experiences. ✓ In 1848, Kasa fought against the Egyptians at a place called Dabarki, but Kasa’s forces lost the battle owing to the Egyptians’ superior military organization, discipline and better arms. ✓ From his defeat, Kasa drew a lesson pertaining to the importance of modern army. On the other hand, Kasa’s fame was spreading in the area and became a major concern to the Warra-Sheh (Yejju)ruling house. ✓ Thus, they decided to pacify Kasa through marriage arrangement. Hence, Kasa married Tewabech, the daughter of Ras Ali II and he was appointed the governor of Quara. ✓ However, Kasa felt that he was not well treated by Ras Ali and his mother, Etege Menen, and hence, he resumed his shiftnet resulting in a series of battles. These were: 1. Kasa defeated Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on November 27, 1852; 2. The four dejjazmachs sent by Ras Ali (Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew), at Taqusa (Gorgora Bichign) on April 12, 1853; 3. Ras Ali at Ayshal on 29 June 1853 and 4. Dejjazmach Wube of Simen and Tigray at Deresge Mariam on 8 Feb., 1855. ❖ After defeating the major regional lords one after another, he was anointed by Abune Salama, the Coptic bishop at Deresge Mariam on 9 February 1855, with the throne name of Tewodros II (1855-1868), King of Kings of Ethiopia. ❖ Tewodros pursued his victory at Deresge by marching to the south, marched first to Wollo and then to Shewa. ❖ He wanted to create a strong central government by appointing individuals (hereditary and non-hereditary) who would be totally accountable to him. After the inclusion of Shewa, rebellions broke out in several regions such as in Gojjam, Simen, Wag and Lasta, Shewa, Wollo, and Tigray. ❖ Externally, he was involved in a serious diplomatic crises following the imprisonment of a handful of Britons and other Europeans. ❖ As a result, the British Parliament sent an expeditionary force to free those prisoners and punish the emperor. In a battle that took place at Maqdela, Emperor Tewodros committed suicide on April 13, 1868. ✓ Following the death of Emperor Tewodros, three contenders to the throne emerged; namely, Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Kasa Mircha of Tigray and Menilek of Shewa. ✓ Gobeze took state power immediately after Tewodros as Emperor Tekle- Giorgis II (1868−71). He was defeated by Kasa Mircha, at the battle at Assam (near Adwa) in July 1871. ✓ Kasa, who became Emperor Yohannes IV in January 1872, sustained state building project with an approach that differed from that of Tewodros. ❖ Yohannes IV (1872-1889):- attempted to introduce a decentralized system of administration, permitting regional rulers to exercise a great deal of autonomy. A good examples of this were: ✓ His recognition of Menilek as Negus of Shewa in 1878 by the Liche agreement. ✓ Similarly, Yohannes designated Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam as Negus Tekle- Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881. ✓ He succeeded in achieving the unity of the predominately Christian provinces including Wag and Lasta, Simen, Begemidr, Amhara Saynt, Gojjam, Wollo, Shewa, and including the Mereb Milash. ❖ Emperor Yohannes IV sought to end the religious controversy within the EOC as well as effect religious unity in the country. In this regard, he presided over the Council of Boru Meda (1878):- 1. Where Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the EOC. 2. This was followed by the conversion of Muslims and adherents of other religions into Orthodox Christianity.The reactions of Wollo Muslims were different:- Accordingly, the leading Wollo leaders such as Mohammed Ali and Amede Liben converted into Christianity and changing their names to Ras Michael and Dajjach Hayle-Mariam, respectively. Others accepted the Emperor's demand outwardly but remained Muslims, becoming "Christians by day and Muslims by night". Others resisted and fled Wollo to Arsi, Gurage, Jimma and the Sudan. While others revolted under the leadership of Sheikh Tola (Talha) Jafar that led to harsh measures of Emperor Yohannes IV. ❖ Externally, Emperor Yohannes faced challenges from Egyptians, Italians, and the Mahdists at different times. He lost his life fighting the latter at Metemma in 1889. ❖ Although the Emperor had designated Mengesha Yohannes as his successor, the throne was assumed by Negus Menelik of Shewa who became Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913). ❖ Ras Mengesha refused to submit to Emperor Menelik. The tension was resolved after Menelik led a campaign to force Mengesha's submission in 1889. ❖ Ras Mengesha was appointed as governor of Tigray after a temporary arrangement in which Ras Mekonnen Wolde Mikael ruled the area for about a year. B.Territorial Expansion Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV made state building their mission and struggled their ways. Yet, the most successful was Menilek of Shewa. This was because Menilek had, among other factors, access to modern firearms. The control of resource rich areas that enabled the emperor to build military muscle as well as the determination of his generals counted for his successes. The process of territorial expansion by Menilek can be discussed in three phases i.e. when he was king of Shewa (1865-89), from 1889-96 and the aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900). I. First Phase (1865-1889):- before the 1870s, Menilek had already incorporated the Tulema and eastern Mecha Oromo. ✓ Oromo elites such as Ras Gobena Dache, Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde, Dejjach Balcha Safo (Abba Nefso) and others worked towards the formation of the modern Ethiopian state. ✓ In 1875-76, the northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully submitted to Menilek because of their religious affinity and geographical proximity to the Kingdom of Shewa, and for fear of their local rivals notably the surrounding Oromo. ✓ On the other hand, the western Gurage, led by Hasan Enjamo of Qabena, which had elements of Hadiya-Gurage coalition strongly resisted Menilek's force until Ras Gobena broke their resistance in 1888. ✓ After the Battle of Embabo in 1882, Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem and Jimma Abba Jifar submitted to Menilek peacefully, who promised them to recognize and maintain their autonomy. ✓ Nigus Menelik faced the most sustained bloody wars were those of against the Arsi Oromo. It took six different campaigns from 1882-6 to control this vast region. ✓ Ras Darge Sahile-Selassie's force defeated the Arsi Oromo at the battle of Azule on 6 September 1886. That was followed by the Anole incident that inflicted heavy damage to the Arsi Oromo in 1887.  In the east, Menilek's commander, Dejjach Wolde-Gabra'el, fought against Emir Abdullahi (r.1885-1887) of the Harari and Bakar Ware of the Itu- Humbanna defeated in the final engagement at Chalanqo on 6 January 1887. Dejjach (later Ras) Makonnen Wolde Mikael appointed as governor of the province by Emperor Menilek II. II. Second Phase (1889-1896):- was partly in response to the Great Famine or Kifu Qen (Evil Day) of 1888-92. Accordingly, Menilek's army occupied Dawuro-Konta and Kambata in 1889 and 1890, respectively. ❖ From the early 1890s to 1894, Menilek's army controlled Bale, Sidama, Gamo Gofa and Wolayta. ❖ In the campaign to Wolayta, Emperor Menilek and many notables such as Ras Mikael of Wollo, Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu, Liqe Mekwas Abate Buayalew, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Ras Wolde-Giorgis, and Abba Jifar II of Jimma participated. ❖ Wolayta's resistance led by Kawo (King) Tona against Menilek's force was defeated in 1894 in which large number of people lost their lives. This was followed by the incorporation of Gedeo, Borana and Konso into the imperial state. ❖ III. Third Phase(1896-1900):-Menilek's force incorporated Kafa, Beni- Shangul, and Gambella after the battle of Adwa. The process of the incorporation of Kafa paralleled the Wolayta experience. ✓ In 1897, the king of Kafa, Tato Gaki Sherocho, fought and lost to Menilek's army led by Ras Wolde Giorgis. ✓ Beni-Shangul was incorporated after the Battle of Fadogno in 1897/98. This was followed by the occupation of Maji in 1898/99. Tesema Nadew also controlled Baro (Sobat) and Nasir in Gambella around this time. ❖ The process of territorial expansion was consummated with the singing of boundary agreements with the neighboring colonial powers that continued until 1908. ❖ After Menelik, the process of centralization and establishing a unitary state continued by abolishing regional autonomies in the early decades of the 20th century. ❖ In the process, Wollo (after the battle of Segele in 1916 when Nigus Mika’el was defeated), Begemedir (after the battle of Anchim at which Ras Gugsa Wole was defeated in 1930), Gojjam in 1932 and Jimma in 1933 were reduced to mere provinces by Teferi-Mekonnen (Haile Sillassie I).  6.3. Modernization Attempts ▪ The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts to adopt western ideas and technology by Ethiopian monarchs. ▪ Although several Ethiopian regional rulers were interested in European technologies, Emperor Tewodros had relatively better information/contact about western technologies than his predecessors. ▪ He was well aware of the importance of European technologies to transform his people and country. For this purpose, he attempted to approach Europeans for the introduction of western science and technologies. ▪ It is apparent that, Kasa’s defeat by the well-trained and equipped Egyptian troops at the Battle of Dabarki in 1848 had made him think putting the country “on an equal footing with European powers.” ▪ As a monarch, Tewodros took a number of military, administrative and socio-economic reform measures. ▪ As regards the army, Tewodros introduced military titles, like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa. Besides, he tried to organize and replace the regional armies of the Zemene-Mesafint with salaried national army. ▪ Furthermore, he tried to manufacture firearms at his workshop, Gafat (near Debre Tabor) with the help of European missionaries and artisans. ▪ At Gafat, about 35 cannons were produced of which the biggest one was known as “Sebastopol." He also tried to build a small navy in Lake Tana. ▪ The administrative reforms of Tewodros were focused on the centralization of power and securing financial base. He introduced a policy of “general pacification”, warning that everyone should return to his lawful vocation, the merchant to his store, and the farmer to his plough. ▪ He tried to separate church and the monarchy. He tried to reduce the amount of land held by the church as well as the number of priests and deacons serving every church brought him into conflict with the EOC, which precipitated his downfall. ▪ In the case of socio-economic reforms, he began the construction of Ethiopia’s first embryonic road network to link Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela. ▪ He also attempted to put an end to the slave trade. Other reform attempts include land reform and banning of polygamy. ▪ The use of Amharic writing became more developed, and a traditional library was established at Maqdala, all of which contributed to the development of literary Amharic. ▪ He wrote letters after letters to different foreign powers including to Queen Victoria using Amharic language. With regard to religion, he tried to solve the doctrinal controversy that continued from the 17th century within the EOC. ▪ However, his reforms were not fully materialized owing to internal oppositions and external challenges. ▪ Emperor Yohannes' reign also witnessed several important reforms and innovations. Among these, he was the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign consul who served as his representative in London. ▪ He hired a French mechanic, a Hungarian gunsmith, and an Italian construction worker to assist his modernization efforts of the country. ▪ Furthermore, he sent some individuals abroad for modern education. ▪ He was also the first to introduce modern style vaccine against smallpox replacing traditional inoculation. His reign also witnessed extensive treatment of syphilis in several towns. ▪ Modernization attempts of the reign of Emperor Menilek had diverse elements. ▪ The post-Adwa period was marked by the establishment of a postal service and telecommunications/ the telephone-telegraph system, the construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis Ababa, the opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia) and the introduction of silver coin. ▪ In terms of administration, the emperor introduced European style ministerial system/ministers in 1907. ▪ Accordingly, he appointed Afe-Nigus Nesibu Meskelo (Minister of Justice), Azazh Metaferia Melke-Tsadiq (Minister of Imperial Court), Bejirond MulugetaYigezu (Minister of Finance), Fitawurari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde (Minister of War), Negadras Hailegiorgis Weldemikael (Minister of Commerce and Foreign Relations), and Tsehafe-Tizaz Gebreselase Welde Aregay (Minister of Pen). ▪ His reign also witnessed the opening of a hotel in 1907 (Itege Hotel), a modern school (Menilek II School in 1908) and the foundation of Russian Red Cross hospital in 1906 and Russian-run hospital (Menilek II Hospital) in 1910. ▪ During his short stay in power, Lij Iyasu (1913-16) also took several reform measures. The reforms are the banning of the Quragna system, a system that involved chaining the applicant and defendant as well as creditor and debtor until justice was settled. ▪ He tried to amend Leba Shay, a customary mode of detection of criminals or theft. ▪ He introduced municipal police called Tirnbulle. He introduced a policy of auditing of government accounts, and he tried to integrate Ethiopian Muslims into the administration structure. ▪ His rule also witnessed the introduction of a flourmill that functioned mechanically and private industrial enterprises like sawmill, a grinding- mill, a tannery, a soap-factory, etc. ▪ During the Dual Rule of Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi (r. 1916-1930), there were several modernization attempts in broader scope. ▪ The two rulers namely Ras Teferi and Empress Zewditu had different views towards western culture. ▪ Because of his close link with foreigners, Ras Teferi had keen interest in modernization by which he wanted to boost the country’s image on the international stage. This was marked by the entry of Ethiopia into the League of Nations and his grand tour to Europe in 1923 and 1924, respectively. ▪ Some remarkable reforms based on European model took place following his coronation as Emperor Haile-Selassie I in 1930. ▪ Some of the reforms were the centralization of the government, promulgation of Ethiopia’s first constitution in 1931 (despite its drawbacks), establishment of Imperial Body Guard in 1930, with the help of Belgian military mission and the opening of Ethiopia’s first Military Academy at Holeta with the help of a Swedish military mission in 1934.  6.4. Socio-Economic Developments ▪ The period from 1800 to 1941 was also marked by changes in socio- economic conditions including trade, slavery and slave trade, agriculture, urbanization and manufacturing. 6.4.1.Agriculture and Land Tenure ▪ The 19th and early 20th centuries were times when agricultural economy grew and the demand for land for cultivation and grazing increased. ▪ The system favored the powerful groups to control land that resulted in the change of property right on the preexisting land tenure system. ▪ The role of agriculture in the local economy and the politics of the period could be understood from the territorial competition and expansions to control surplus producing areas. This altered people's relation to land, making some privileged and others unprivileged. ▪ The quest for land and surplus production was one factor for territorial expansion by Menilek in the late 19th century. ▪ Land was required, among others, to settle and feed the warriors and their families. Hence, the incorporation of the southern half of the country into the imperial state resulted in the redefinition of access to resources in these regions. ▪ The state institutionalized different forms of surplus expropriation and mechanisms to ensure political control in the regions that had peacefully submitted and those that resisted. ▪ The former relatively enjoyed self-administration but were subjected to pay qurt-gibir (fixed tax). The latter were placed under the naftegna- gabbar/gabbar-naftegna system whereby local peoples were made to pay tribute to the former. ▪ Gradually, the naftegna-gabbar system led to the evolution of a new tenure regime in the forcefully incorporated areas. Literally, naftegna means a person with a gun. In this context, naftegna refers to soldiers of different social backgrounds who were stationed in the southern territories under the imperial banner. ▪ One effect of the institution of the naftegna-gabbar system was the creation of classes like landlords, ballabat, gabbar and tenants. The landholders were largely government agents while the local population was reduced in time into gabbar and later tenants. ▪ One major factor that brought change to agricultural practices including land tenure system was the beginning of the qalad system (land measurement) in the 1890s. ▪ Land measurement affected access to agricultural resources in diverse ways including changes to customary rules of access to land. ▪ Qalad introduced new practices in which certain social classes gained access to land while at the same time it resulted in the dispossession of the local peasantry in parts of the south. ▪ Later, land was categorized into lam (cultivated), lam-taf (partly-cultivated) and taf (uncultivated) to facilitate taxation. 6.4.2. Slavery and Slave Trade ▪ Slavery and slave trade had long history in Ethiopia and the Horn. Most slaves in Ethiopia were kept as domestic slaves and some were sold to Egypt and the Middle East and the Ottoman Empire through the Sudan, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden ports. ▪ During the 19th century, in some parts of Ethiopia, slaves were required for agricultural works, in the army and as sources of revenue through selling into slavery. Thus, several regional and local rulers enslaved people for these purposes. ▪ Slaves were traded as commodities in local and international markets. For instance, in 1837 slave raiders captured Bilile from Guma and sold her to a German prince, Herman Pickler Muskau at Cairo who changed her name to Mahbuba and made her his mistress. ▪ Similarly, Hika (later Onesimos Nasib) was kidnapped in 1869 in Hurumu when he was four years old. He was sold at Massawa, later freed by a Swedish mission, after which he translated the Bible into Afan Oromo at Menkulu (in Eritrea). ▪ Aster Gano was also sold into slavery from Limmu. However, in 1886, she was emancipated and assisted Onesimos in the translation of the Bible. ▪ During the 19th century, slave trade expanded in Ethiopia and the Horn due to increased demand for slaves in foreign markets largely in the Middle East. This was followed by the emergence of market centers from Bonga to Metemma and Massawa. ▪ Selling slaves was source of revenue for many local chiefs. Slaves were acquired through raiding, kidnapping, war captivity, debt bondage, and purchase from open markets. Major sources of slaves were southern and southwestern parts of Ethiopia. ▪ Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV and Menilek II tried to stop the slave trade although not slavery itself. In 1923, Ras Teferi banned slave trade which eventually came out in a decree in 1924 to emancipate slaves. ▪ This was followed by the establishment of the Office for the Abolition of Slavery in 1932. Freed slaves were kept under the overall supervision of Hakim Warqineh Eshete. ▪ The Italians proclaimed the abolition of slavery immediately after their occupation of the country. After liberation, the Emperor issued a new decree in 1942 abolishing any forms of slave trade and the institution of slavery itself.  6.4.3. Manufacturing ▪ In many cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn, there were age-old indigenous ways of producing/making tools. Such manufacturing activities involved simple procedures and techniques and produced limited quantity of items. For instance, different items like furniture, dresses and food including local drinks, were produced and processed by using traditional techniques involving manual labor. ▪ One result of the contact with the industrialized world from the mid 19th century was the introduction of manufacturing technologies. ▪ The beginning of diplomatic relations and opening of legations in the post-Adwa period was followed by the coming of many expatriates, who either came with the skill or became agents of the introduction of modern manufacturing. ▪ Foreign citizens from Armenia, Greece, Italy and India also brought entrepreneurial capacity to develop manufacturing industries locally. Among modern manufacturing industries, Holeta Grain Mill and Massawa Salt Processing were set up in 1896 and 1904, respectively. ▪ Up to 1927, about 25 factories were established in Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, Asmara and Massawa. These included cement factories, wood and clay workshops, tanneries, soap and edible oil plants, ammunition factories, breweries, tobacco processing plants and grain mills. ▪ Private entrepreneurs established most of them. Among these, Artistic Printing Press and Ambo Mineral Water plant were established before the Italian occupation. ▪ After 1928, including in the short lived Italian occupation, more than ten manufacturing industries were set up. 6.4.4. Urbanization ▪ The period from the early 19th century to 194l marked the evolution of towns stemming from political, socio-economic, demographic and ecological factors. ▪ During the period, the expansion of both local and long distance trade since the early 19th century had transformed old markets and socio- political centers into towns in Ethiopia and the Horn. In this case, several towns located on the long-distance trade in western Ethiopia grew into towns. ▪ In addition, the beginning of railway connecting Djibouti and Addis Ababa as of 1917 was followed by the evolution of several fast growing towns. Towns including Dire-Dawa, Adama, Mojo, Bishoftu and others were results of the extension of the railway and the expansion of trade. ▪ On the other hand, politico-religious centers in several parts of the region evolved into towns. This was true mainly in the northern parts of Ethiopia. ▪ Many centers that once served as "royal camps" evolved into towns and parallel to this many towns declined with the demographic change when "royal camps" shifted to other centers. ▪ One of the towns that grew through such process was Addis Ababa. Empress Taytu Betul chose the place for its hot springs, Fel-Wuha (formerly called Hora Finfinne). ▪ Similarly, as of the late 19th century, in southern Ethiopia, a number of towns emerged when Menilek's generals established garrisons in suitable locations in order to maintain control of the occupied provinces. ▪ The presence of the governors and soldiers made such areas permanent areas of politico-economic and religious activities. Such centers of administration known as katamas (garrison towns) became centers of trade and eventually grew into towns. ▪ Towns including Gobba, Ticho, Gore, Arjo, etc were garrisons that grew into towns. ▪ During the Italian rule (1936-41), several of the above towns grew in size and other new towns evolved because of socio-economic and political developments of the period.  6.5. External Relations ❖ One consequence of the Zemene-Mesafint was the end of the 'close door policy’ that was introduced by Emperor Fasiladas (1632-1667). ❖ Thus, beginning from the early 1800s, regional rulers made independent foreign contacts and signed treaties. The agents of these external relations were mainly travelers. ❖ Travelers came to Ethiopia and the Horn, with the motives of adventure and scientific research. They were also sometimes involved in fostering friendship and trade relation on behalf of their governments. Some of them, however, came with covert mission of colonialism. ❖ Meanwhile, various rulers of Ethiopia and the Horn had also dispatched their own delegations to various countries of the world. ✓ One of the earliest private travelers was Henry Salt who reached the court of Ras Wolde-Selassie of Tigray on 28 August 1805. ✓ He came for scientific reasons, but he claimed that his mission was to establish friendship between Great Britain and Ethiopia. He returned to Ethiopia in 1809 and concluded agreement with the Ras. ✓ Several British travelers including Christian Kugler also arrived in the 1830s. Travelers from Germany like Eduard Ruppell (a scholar) arrived in 1846; Captain W.C. Harris, leading an official British mission visited Shewa. John Bell and Walter Plowden in the 1840s, the Italian Geographic Society in 1869 and the like arrived for trade relation and scientific purposes. ✓ The result of these contacts was the agreement between Negus Sahle-Selassie of Shewa and British Captain W. Harris in 1841 as well as with the French Rochet d’Hericourt, in 1843. In addition, Walter Plowden also signed treaty with Ras Ali in 1849. ✓ Furthermore, other regional lords had contacts with religious centers in the Middle East, particularly with Jerusalem. During the period, Egyptians threatened the Ethiopian religious community settlement at Deir Al-Sultan in Jerusalem. ✓ In the early 1850s, strong lords like Ras Ali and Dejjazmach Wube sent letters to Queen Victoria of England to request support against the Egyptians. ✓ External relations during the reign of Tewodros II seemed more elaborate and oriented towards obtaining western technology and military support to defend foreign aggression. ✓ As with his predecessors, Emperor Yohannes IV tried to create strong relations with Europeans. The major concerns of Emperor Yohannes IV were the restoration of the lost territories, the delimitation of boundaries and the defense of the sovereignty of the state against the threat and interference by foreign powers. ✓ When he confronted external challenge like Egypt, he tried to solve through negotiation than war. War was his last choice as he fought with Egypt in 1875/76 and Mahdist Sudan in 1889. ✓ One of the major diplomatic relations Yohannes concluded was Hewett /Adwa Treaty. It was a treaty signed between the Emperor and the British Rear Admiral William Hewett on behalf of Egypt on 3 June 1884 at Adwa. ✓ The purpose was to safely evacuate Egyptian troops through Ethiopia who were trapped by the Mahdist troops along the Ethio-Sudanese border. ✓ In return, Bogos was to be restored to Ethiopia and the latter was to freely use Massawa for the transit of goods and firearms. Based on the agreement, Emperor Yohannes facilitated the safe evacuation of Egyptian troops through his territory. ✓ Britain restored Bogos to Ethiopia. However, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy in February 1885. ✓ One consequence of the treaty was Mahdist determination to avenge Yohannes that led to the battle of Metemma on 9 March 1889 which claimed his death. ❖ In terms of diplomatic relations and repulsing external threats, Emperor Menilek II was more successful through maintaining the balance among powerful forces of the period. While he was king of Shewa, he established commercial relation with Italy that later helped him to acquire military equipment. ✓ Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its climax with the signing of the Wuchale Treaty. It was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli and signed on 2 May 1889, at Wuchale, Wollo between Emperor Menilek II of Ethiopia and Antonelli on behalf of Prime Minister Crispi of Italy. ✓ The treaty has 20 articles and was written both in Amharic and Italian languages. The Italian version of Article III indicates the “effective occupation” of Italy to legitimize its further expansion towards the Mereb River. ✓ Article XVII has major difference in the two language versions. ✓ While the Amharic version states that Ethiopia could optionally conduct its foreign affairs through Italy, the Italian version indicates that Menilek’s foreign contacts must be through the agency of Italy. ✓ As a result, based on the Italian version of Article XVII, Italy announced that all foreign powers had to deal with Ethiopia only through Italy. European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim except Russia. ✓ In January 1890, the Italian government formally declared Eritrea as its colony. ✓ Italian action to colonize Ethiopia through tricky treaties; persuasion and the subversive methods failed. This was because Menilek publicly abrogated the Wuchale Treaty in February 1893 and Tigrian lords including Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi and Dajjach Hagos Tafari, began to fight against the Italians collaborating with Emperor Menilek. ✓ Italian determination to occupy Ethiopia and Ethiopian resistance against colonialism led to the battle. This finally led to the Battle of Adwa, where the latter became victorious. ✓ After the victory of Adwa, different foreign countries opened their legations at Addis Ababa to establish relations on official basis. ✓ Furthermore, Emperor Menilek made boundary agreements with the then neighboring colonial powers like: - French-Somaliland (the present day Djibouti) on 20 March 1897, - British-Somaliland (now Somaliland) on June 1897, - Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on 15 May 1902, -Italian colony of Eritrea on 10 July 1900 and -British East Africa (Kenya) in 1907 and Italian-Somaliland in 1908. These boundary agreements shaped modern Ethiopian boundary. ✓ International politics of the 20th century also shaped Ethiopia’s foreign relations. For instance, during the First World War (1914-18) Lij Iyasu showed a tendency to side with the Central Powers (Germany, Austro- Hungary, Bulgaria and Ottoman Empire) believing that the defeat of the Allied powers (France and Britain) would allow Ethiopia to push Italy out of Eritrea and Somalia. ✓ He also befriended the Somali nationalist leader, Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan, against Italy and Britain. Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan (1864-1920) led the Somali against the European occupation. ✓ He tried to attract support from the mass through his Pan-Somali movement. In the history of the Somali, he is recognized as a forerunner of modern Somali nationalism. ✓ One of the successes of Ethiopia’s foreign relation in the early 20th C was her admission to the League of Nations in 1923. A year later, Teferi made his grand European tour which shaped his ideas of modernization. ✓ Ethiopia’s entry into the League of Nations, however, did not save her from Italian invasion in 1935/36. 1. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism ✓ Ethiopian people fought several battles against foreign threats during the period under discussion. The Battle of Dabarki (1848): Dabarki was fought between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian forces in 1848. ✓ Although the forces led by Kasa Hailu lost the battle, the military imbalance particularly, the modern artillery and discipline of Egyptian troops gave him a lesson to modernize his military force, acquire modern technologies. ✓ This later initiated him to widen his vision and mission when he became emperor. The Battle of Maqdela (1868): Tewodros II had early relation with Britain through the two British citizens,Walter Plowden and John Bell. ✓ His main aim was to obtain help against foreign threats. In 1862, he sent a letter to Queen Victoria requesting assistance through Consul Cameron. ✓ Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt without bringing any response. Suspecting him as plotting with Egypt, Tewodros imprisoned Captain Cameron and other Europeans. ✓ On learning the imprisonment of the Europeans, Queen Victoria sent a letter through Hormuzd Rassam which did not satisfy Tewodros. ✓ After some communications, the British parliament decided to take military action. Subsequently, 32,000 troops led by Sir Robert Napier were sent through Massawa. This force reached Maqdela guided by Dejazmach Bezibiz Kassa of Tigray (later Emperor Yohannes) and Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta. ✓ On April 10, 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros’ soldiers including his general Gebriye were defeated by the British at the battle of Aroge. ✓ On April 13, 1868, Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdela. This was followed by the burning of his fortress and looting of manuscripts, religious and secular artifacts including his crown by the British troops. The Battles of Gundet and Gura ✓ In the 19th century, Egyptians showed a keen interest to occupy Northeast Africa with the ambition of controlling the source of the Nile. ✓ Following their occupation of the Sudan in 1821, they moved to occupy Ethiopia on several occasions. For instance, in 1875, Khedive Ismail Pasha sent his troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions. 1. Mohammed Rauf Pasha led the Zeila front and the result was the occupation of the Harar Emirate between 1875 and 1885. 2. Werner Munzinger, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s scheme for invasion of Ethiopia, led about 500 Egyptian troops equipped with cannons and rocket tubes through Tajura. But, Munzinger and his troops were all killed by the Afars at the Battle of Odduma. 3. Finally, Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led another 2,000 well-armed troops through Massawa. Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula mobilized about 20,000 forces and encountered the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundet (16 November 1875) where the Egyptian troops were severely defeated. ✓ Egyptians again reorganized their forces and sent their army to invade Ethiopia. However, the Ethiopian forces again defeated them at the Battle of Gura (7–9 March, 1876). The Battle of Dogali ✓ During the late 19th century, Europeans had interest to control the Red Sea area. With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region acquired great strategic and commercial importance. ✓ One of the colonial powers with interest in the Horn of Africa was Italy. 1. The relations Italy had with the Horn began when an Italian private shipping company (Rubatino) had bought the port of Assab from the local chiefs in 1869. 2. In 1882, the port of Assab was transferred to Italian government. 3. In 1885, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy. ✓ By using these bases as spring board, Italy began to penetrate into northern Ethiopia. Subsequently, the Italian forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet and Wia in the then Mereb Milash region. However, they were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by Ras Alula Engida, Emperor Yohannes’s famous general and right hand man. ✓ Following this battle, Italy signed a Treaty of Neutrality with Menilek in October 1887 in a bid to neutralize Menelik so as to isolate Emperor Yohannes. The Battle of Metemma ✓ Hewett Treaty caused clashes between the Mahdist and Ethiopian forces that lasted from 1885 to 1889. 1. The first clash was at Kufit between Ras Alula and Uthman Digna in September 1885. Initially, the Ethiopian force was victorious. However, when Emperor Yohannes IV was in northern Ethiopia to check the Italian advance to Mereb Milash, he heard the Mahadist advance up to Gondar. The Mahdists caused a lot of destruction on churches and monasteries, including the killing of the clergy and the laity. 2. In January 1887, Yohannes ordered Nigus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam to repulse the Mahdists. A year later, the Mahdists led by Abu Anja, defeated Nigus Tekle Haymanot’s troops at Sar Wuha in Dembia. ✓ At this important juncture, Nigus Menelik and Nigus Teklehaimanot conspired against the emperor, instead of directly facing the Mahdists. ✓ As a result, Emperor Yohannes faced what can be called the triangular tension, namely the Italians in the north, the Mahdists in the west and northwest, and his two vassals in the center. ✓ Later, in another direction, the Mahdists were defeated at Gute Dilli (in Najjo-Wallagga) by Menilik’s commander Ras Gobana Dacci on 14 October 1888. ✓ Emperor Yohannes made a national call: The country called Ethiopia is firstly your mother, secondly your crown, thirdly your wife, fourthly your child, fifthly your grave. Accordingly, rise up understanding the love of a mother, honor of a crown, the goodness of a wife, the delight of having a child, and the shelter of a grave. ✓ Hence, on 9 March 1889, the Emperor marched to Metemma where he died fighting the Mahdists. Evidently, it has to be noted here that internal divisions and acrimonies among rulers would result in a huge cost to the country and its peoples. Among others, Maqdela and Metemma are very good testimonies. The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath ✓ The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty finally led to the big battle between Ethiopia and Italian forces. This was because Italians were determined to colonize Ethiopia whereas Ethiopians were ready not to give in. ✓ To meet their intention, the Italians crossed the Mereb River and arrived at Adigrat and proceeded to Amba-Alage. Following Emperor Menelik’s proclamation for general mobilization, about 100,000 troops from every part of the country gathered at Wara-Illu (in today’s South Wollo). ✓ People marched to the front irrespective of gender, regional, and ethnic differences to fight against the Italian aggression. 1. The force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians at Amba Alage and forced them to retreat to Mekelle. 2. In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the Ethiopian forces defeated Italians at Mekelle. At Mekelle, they came under siege that prevented them access to a well which they used for drinking. The strategy was commonly called the “siege of Mekelle” and was considered to be designed by Empress Taytu. After some negotiations, the besieged Italian troops were set free and joined their counterparts at Adwa. 3. A month later, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Menilek, Empress Taiytu and war generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha and Negus Takla- Haymanot and others encountered the Italians at Adwa. ✓ The result of this battle was a decisive victory for Ethiopians but a huge blow to the Italians which doomed their colonial ambition over Ethiopia. ✓ At this battle, about 8,000 Italian fighters were killed, 1,500 wounded and 3,000 were captured. On the Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000 troops are said to have been killed. ✓ Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia by the treaty of Addis Ababa that was signed on October 26, 1896. ✓ A number of powers of the time (including Italy, France, Britain, Russia, the United States, Germany, Belgium, Turkey, and others) also recognized the independence of Ethiopia and opened their legations in Addis Ababa. ✓ Despite different interpretations on the results of the battle of Adwa, the heroic national campaign, cooperation and common successes of peoples of Ethiopia had a positive implication for success and national integration. ✓ The victory has witnessed independence and national pride. It has thus become a source of pride for Ethiopians, Africans and the black race in general. ✓ Furthermore, the victory of Ethiopians at Adwa has had an enduring legacy in the relations between freedom fighters and colonizing powers. The victory of black people on white colonizers initiated entire Africans fighting against colonialism. ✓ The well-known Pan-Africanist, Marcus Garvey, inspired his followers in his “Back to Africa” movement with the success of Ethiopians. He used phrases like “Ethiopia thou land of our fathers” and Ethiopianism became a symbol of anti-colonial movements. Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic Resistance A. Background ✓ Following their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the Italians suspended their expansionist colonial policy in Northeast Africa for a short time. However, they were just waiting the right time to fulfill their interests in any possible way. ✓ Italy eventually got its ideological strength in 1922, when Fascists led by Benito Mussolini held power. The Fascists were determined to restore the power and glory of ancient Roman Empire by avenging Italy’s shameful scar at Adwa. ✓ Initially, Mussolini did not disclose his ambition against the sovereignty of Ethiopia rather he was playing diplomatic ‘cards’ till the coming of the ‘right time.’ ✓ To achieve their goal of occupation of Ethiopia, Italians followed two policies as it was the case before the Battle of Adwa; ‘subversion’ and ‘rapprochement’. ✓ The policy of subversion aimed at affecting the unity of the empire via sowing dissatisfaction in Tigray, Begemedir, Gojjam and Wollo. This responsibility was entrusted to Corrado Zoli, the governor of Eritrea (1928-1930). ✓ The Italian legation in Addis Ababa, headed by Guiliano Cora led the policy of ‘rapprochement’, a pseudo reconciliation tactic which was trying to persuade the Ethiopian government to establish cordial relations between the two countries. ✓ For instance, the signing of the 1928 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Peace and Friendship was the manifestation of the success of the Rapprochement policy. ✓ Here, beside their legation in Addis Ababa, the Italians had also consulates in provincial towns such as Dessie, Adwa, Debre Markos and Gondar. These consulates played a significant role in propagating dissatisfaction and gathering vital military and political intelligence. ✓ In addition to such preparations, the Fascists were also able to get indirect diplomatic support from Britain and France for their colonial project in Ethiopia. ✓ Here, although it is difficult to pinpoint one particular year when the decision was made by Mussolini to launch the intended invasion, 1932 appears to have been a crucial year. Mussolini who made all necessary preparations to launch an invasion against Ethiopia was only searching for a pretext, and then fortunately he found it in the Walwal incident. ✓ The Walwal Incident (5 December 1934) was the result of the post-Awa boundary agreement limitations: lack of demarcation on the ground and lack of effective administrative control in the frontier regions. ✓ However, the Italians refused to give back Walwal and even attacked the Ethiopian soldiers who were stationed nearby. Thus, this situation gave birth to the so called Walwal Incident. ✓ Surprisingly, although the number of Ethiopians dead during this border clash was three times as high as the Italians, it was Italy which demanded totally unreasonable apology and reparation from Ethiopia. ✓ Then, Ethiopia which refused to accept Italy’s demand took the matter to the League of Nations and a period of diplomatic wrangling followed to resolve the dispute. However, in the meantime Mussolini, who already got the desired excuse, was finalizing his preparations to launch a total invasion. B.The 1935 Invasion and After ✓ After they completed their preparations, the Italians waged their aggression via two major fronts: the northern and the southern Front. ✓ The war was started in the northern Front when the Italians crossed the Mereb River on 3 October 1935 and launched a three pronged invasion and controlled Adigrat,Adwa and Mekelle. ✓ In January 1936, Ethiopian counter offensive marched north through three fronts. Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie led the western front, Ras Kasa Hailu (also commander of the entire northern front) and Ras Seyum Mengesha led the central front and Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War Minister) led the eastern front. ✓ On 20 January 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a major offensive against the Italians intending to isolate Mekelle, but failed to realize its objective due to lack of coordination among the above mentioned commanders. ✓ On January 24, the Ethiopian force lost to the Italians at the first Battle in Temben. This was followed by an attack on the Ethiopian force which was stationed in what seemed to be an impregnable natural fortress of Amba Aradom, to the south of Mekelle. ✓ The Italians scored yet another decisive victory in which the commander of the Ethiopian army, Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, lost his life. ✓ Besides modern weapons, the Italian force had superiority in the air. Moreover, the forces of Ras Kasa and Ras Seyum were outnumbered by the Italian troops. This resulted in another defeat at the Second Battle of Temben (27-29 February 1936). Ras Kasa and Ras Seyum narrowly escaped and joined the Emperor at Korem. ✓ On the western front, the Ethiopian army under Ras Emeru put strong resistance against the advancing force of the Italians. Thanks to Ras Emeru’s better leadership quality, the number of death of Ethiopian soldiers was less than what it had been in the northern front. ✓ A series of battles between the Ethiopian and Italian forces in the northern Front culminated in Maychew on 31 March 1936. Although the Ethiopian army (especially members of the Kebur Zebegna) under the command of the Emperor put strong resistance against the Italians, they were not able to conclude the battle with victory. ✓ Many Ethiopian soldiers lost their lives from gunpowder and air bombardment during the battle. Then the Italian forces controlled Dessie and Addis Ababa on 4 April 1936 and 5 May 1936, respectively. ❖ The Ethiopian army in the Southern Front was better equipped and well led by Ras Desta Damtew (in the south) and Dejazmach Nesibu Zamanuel (in the southeast) were leaders of the Ethiopian troops in this Front. ✓ The Ethiopian army lost to the Italians at two major battles in the Southern Front: Qorahe (November 1935) and Genale Dorya (12-14 January 1936). In the ensuing battles, the Askaris (recruited from Eritrea) deserted the Italians and joined the Ethiopian force which boosted the moral of Ras Desta’s troops. ✓ Ras Desta continued to challenge the Italians until he was captured and executed in early 1937. The number of soldiers the Italians lost during the fighting in the Southern Front was larger than the North. ✓ On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country and three days later the Italians entered Addis Ababa. Between Haile Selassie’s departure and the Italian entry, Addis Ababa was beset by burning of buildings, looting and random shooting. ✓ The major targets of the violence were the rich, foreigners and the imperial palace. Many foreigners saved their lives by taking refuge in foreign legations. ❖ After their control of the capital, Marshal Badoglio immediately reported the situation to Mussolini. Benito Mussolini announced to the people of Italy and the world about their control of Ethiopia using the phrase “Ethiopia is Italian!” ✓ The Italians immediately merged Ethiopia with their colonies of Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. Then, they named the combination of their colonies Italian East Africa (IEA) or Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI). ✓ The newly formed Italian East Africa had six administrative regional divisions that replaced former international boundaries.These were: 1. Eritrea (including Tigray) with its capital at Asmara; 2. Amhara (including Begemidr, Gojjam, Wollo and Northern Shewa) with its capital at Gondar; 3. Oromo and Sidama (including Southern and Southwestern provinces) with its capital at Jimma; 4. Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar; 5. Somalia (including Ogaden) with its capital at Mogadishu; 6. Addis Ababa (later changed to Shewa), the capital of the entire Italian East Africa. ✓ During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia, the following Italians served as governors of Italian East Africa successively: Marshal Badoglio (till the end of May 1936), Marshal Graziani (till February 1937), and finally Amadeo Umberto d’Aosta (the Duke of Aosta). ✓ Generally, a top-heavy bureaucracy and corruption characterized the Italian administration of IEA. For instance, the last governor of IEA, the Duke of Aosta himself characterized 50% of his officials as inept and 25% as thieves. ✓ Marshal Badoglio himself reportedly pocketed about 1,700,000 Maria Theresa Thalers confiscated from the Bank of Ethiopia, in the immediate aftermath of the conquest. ✓ In the economic respect, the Italians weakened and destroyed non- Italian foreign firms and replaced them with governmental enterprises that controlled the industry, trade and agriculture. ✓ The Italians were relatively successful in the sectors of trade and industry as compared to the agricultural sector. For instance, they planned to settle Italian farmers in selected Ethiopian areas such as Wegera, Chercher and Jimma. However, their agricultural plan was failed (they only accomplished 10%) due to their failure to secure the control of the rural areas due to the patriotic movement. ✓ The Italian administrative control was largely confined to urban areas due to the strong patriotic resistance. Thus; their legacy was also largely reflected in the towns than the rural areas, which were actually out of the Italian effective rule. ❖ Generally, the legacy of the Italian rule can be summarized in the following brief points: 1. Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in towns such as Addis Ababa, Jimma,Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar,Asmara, Mogadishu and others. ✓ Introduction of urban facilities like clean water and electricity; ✓ Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of European habits- including eating and dressing styles, and adoption of Italian words); ✓ The consolidation of cash economy; ✓ Road construction and development of motor transport;  C. The Patriotic Resistance Movement ✓ The five-year Italian occupation (1936-41) was not a smooth experience. Rather, the Ethiopian peoples opposed them in a number of ways. Among others, the patriots gave them hard times largely in rural areas. ✓ Ethiopian patriots continued their resistance in almost all regions and by all ethnic groups of the empire with varying degree of intensification. ✓ The first phase of resistance was the continuation of the war itself. Among the highlights of this phase was the resistance waged by three commanders of the Southern Front, Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene Merid and Dejjach Gebre Maryam Gari. ✓ An extension of this phase was a five pronged assault on the capital in the summer of 1936. The campaign had involved two sons of Ras Kasa Hailu (Asfawesen and Aberra), the veteran of Adwa Dejjach Balcha Safo, Balambaras (later Ras) Abebe Aregay, and Dejjach Fikremariam Yinnnadu. ✓ However, it was failed because of lack of effective means of transportation and radio communication. Abune Petros, the Bishop of Wollo, who was the spirit behind the patriots was executed and became a martyr of the resistance. ❖ The second phase covers from 1937 to the end of the Italian occupation in 1941. On 19 February 1937, two young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha Deboch and Moges Asgedom, hurled a bomb at Graziani in the Genete-Le’ul palace compound at Sidist Kilo, wounding him seriously and killing some others. ❖ This was followed by a reign of terror waged by the Black Shirts; who chopped off heads, burnt down houses with their inhabitants and disemboweled thousands in Addis Ababa. ❖ According to Ethiopian official accounts, about 30,000 Ethiopians of different ages, classes and sex were killed in three days’ campaign. ❖ Special targets of the Fascist terror were educated Ethiopians (including many members of the Black Lion Organization). The EOC also became a target. For instance, on 21 May 1937, in the monastery of Debre Libanos alone, 297 monks were executed. ❖ The elimination of the intelligentsia was to create 'the missing generation' in Ethiopia's intellectual and political history. ✓ This Fascist terror marked the transition from the conventional patriotic resistance to guerrilla warfare that could eventually weaken the enemy forces. ✓ As the Fascist regime became intolerable to Ethiopians, there were women who led their own army in the guerrilla wars, like Woizero Lekyelesh Beyan, whose career as a guerrilla fighter ended in January 1941, when she was captured after an Italian air bombardment. ✓ Woizero Kebedech Seyoum (a daughter of Ras Seyum Mengesha and the wife of Dejazmach Abera Kasa), started her patriotic activity before the fall of Addis Ababa to the Italians. Thus, when her husband was fighting in the northern front, she maintained peace and order in the province of Selalie representing her husband. ✓ Although it lacked coordination, patriotic resistance to Italian rule took place in the country in numerous forms and tenacity. There was no unified command structure. ✓ In most provinces of the country, similar acts of resistance were observed. Eritreans too were joining the resistance in big numbers. ✓ The struggle continued but it suffered from serious internal weakness. The resistance was handicapped by the Ethiopian collaborators called the Banda who exercised their corrosive activities in different areas. ✓ Another weakness of the resistance movement was that it was divided and that there was no one national organization to coordinate the activities of the many patriotic groups dispersed in many parts of the country. ✓ Relations between guerrilla groups were characterized by parochialism and jealousy. Some guerrilla groups spent more time fighting one another than attacking the declared enemy. ✓ Despite these weaknesses, the patriots carried on a persistent resistance against Italian fascism, until suddenly they got external support from Britain in 1941. ✓ Ethiopian struggle for independence was associated with World War II, when Italy declared war on France and Britain on 10 June 1940. ✓ Mussolini decided to enter the war on the side of Germany in the hope of securing outside support; the internationalization of the conflict was a good opportunity. ✓ For Haile Sellassie too, the situation was important. His requests for assistance were finally answered by the British government that decided to drive out Italians from East Africa. ✓ On 12 July 1940, London recognized the Emperor as a full ally. ✓ The British launched a three pronged attack on the Italians. 1. In the north, General William Platt led the forces that attacked the Italians in Eritrea. 2. In January 1941, Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate accompanied the Emperor from the Sudan into Gojjam at the head of British and Ethiopian troops called the Gedeon force. 3. General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya. The advances were rapid largely due to the demoralization that the patriots had caused among the Italians. ✓ Emperor Haile-Selassie entered Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941, exactly five years after Italian entry to the capital.