Ethiopia and the Horn, 1800-1941

Internal Developments and External Relations of Ethiopia and the Horn, 1800-1941

• At the start of the 19th century, numerous autonomous and semi-autonomous peoples and states existed in Ethiopia and the Horn.

Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia

• South-Central: Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, and Gurage were autonomous and semi-autonomous political entities. Their economies relied heavily on agriculture, with local merchants involved in both local and long-distance trade. Trade routes passed through these territories. The Gurage land was an important market and political entity, with significant trade centers like Soddo and Aymallel.
• The Gurage: Had their own political structure, led by leaders holding the titles of Abegaz or Azmatch, who combined political and military authority. In the second half of the 19th century Qabena emerged as a strong political entity, becoming a center of Muslim revivalism. These communities were connected to Muslim refugees from Wollo and potentially to the Mahdist Sudan.
• The Gibe States: Several monarchical states (motumma) emerged among the Mecha Oromo at the expense of the Gadaa system during the early 19th century. Factors contributing to this transformation included war leaders (Abba-Dula) and powerful individuals usurping the power of the Gadaa government. The Abbas-Dula accumulated wealth from taxing long-distance trade, which aided in establishing hereditary leadership and the creation of five monarchical states around Gibe.
• Limmu-Enarya: The earliest Gibe State, founded through the incorporation of Enarya. Abba Dulas from Limmu defeated rulers of Enarya. Bofoo/Abba Gomol established Limmu-Enarya (1800-1825), then Ibsa/Abba Bagiboo (1825-1861) ruled, incorporating territories including Hagalo, Badi-Folla and others.
• Gomma: Formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829), who was succeeded by Abba Manoo (1829-1840), who occupied Qattuu. The religion of the rulers converted to Islam through Muslim scholars.
• Jimma: Makahore emerged as an influential female figure in the late 18th century. A local Abba Dula, Ose Kobi, was elected as a hereditary ruler who defied the Gada system. He was succeeded by Dangila (Abba Magal).
• Gera: The last of the Gibe kingdoms, formed during the reign of Tullu Gunji (1835-38), who then became king. Gera enjoyed prosperity under Abba Magal; he converted to Islam.
• The Leqa States: Several monarchical kingdoms emerged in the Mecha Oromo of Wallagga, including the Leqa, Sibu, and Jawwi states.

Trade and Trade Routes

• Trade routes linking southwestern Ethiopia to the coast had medieval roots, attaining prominence in the 19th century.
• The revival of external trade in the Red Sea influenced relations among diverse groups.
• Two main trade lines existed: one linking Bonga (Kafa Kingdom) in Southwestern Ethiopia with the northern part of Ethiopia (Bonga, Hirmata, Saqa, etc.); the other passing through Adwa, Asmara, Massawa, etc., linked to Djibouti.
• Main goods traded included gold, ivory, rhinoceros horn, skins, civet, musk, honey, wax, coffee, spices, and slaves exported from the interior to Arabia, Persia, and India. Salt bars (amole) and cowries were major mediums of exchange.
• Trade routes: Bonga, Hirmata, Saqa (Limmu), Asandabo, Basso-Yajube (Gojjam), Yifag, Darita (Begemider), and Gondar.

The Making of Modern Ethiopian State

• State-building was centered on the strength, ambition of leaders, and their relationships with foreign powers.
• Two distinct phases were involved: unifying northern and north-central regions; territorial expansion in southern regions.

The Process of Territorial Unification

• Kasa Hailu of Quara (later Emperor Tewodros II) played a key role in the unification process.
• Kasa initially assisted his brother in defeating Egyptians and gained military and political experience.
• Kasa's defeat against the Egyptians at Dabarki prompted him to better organize his army.
• The marriage alliance aimed to pacify Kasa, through marriage and appointment as governor.
• He engaged in several battles against regional lords, culminating in his anointment as Emperor Tewodros II (1855-1868).
• Tewodros sought to establish a strong central government by appointing officials who were accountable to him, which triggered conflicts in various regions of Ethiopia.
• After Tewodros's death, various claimants emerged for the throne. Contestants included Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Kasa Mircha of Tigray and Menilek of Shewa.

Territorial Expansion

• Emperor Tewodros II and Emperor Yohannes IV had state building as their mission, while Menilek successfully expanded Ethiopia.
• Menilek's success stemmed from access to modern firearms, his generals' determination, and control of resource-rich areas.
• The expansion occurred in three phases: King of Shewa (1865-1889); from 1889-1896; and the aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900).
• Significant events during this expansion included peaceful (religious and geographical) submissions, and the incorporation of different lands conquered from battles:
  • incorporation of Tulema and eastern Mecha Oromo
  • dealing with rebellions among the Ras
  • the war with Kafa
  • the Battle of Adwa

Modernization Attempts

• Ethiopian monarchs made efforts to adopt Western ideas and technology.
• Emperor Tewodros recognized the importance of European technologies.
• Tewodros introduced military titles, organized a national army, tried to manufacture firearms and sent some people to Europe for education. 
• He also initiated the construction of a navy and development of infrastructure projects.
• Later emperors (e.g. Yohannes IV, and Menilek II) continued with efforts to modernize Ethiopia.

Socio-Economic Developments

• 19th and 20th centuries saw increased agricultural economy due to demand for cultivated and grazed land).
• Powerful groups controlled land, changing traditional land-tenure. Territorial expansions further altered land ownership.
• Demand for land and resources increased due to expansion.
• Slavery and slave trade continued with its own history and economic significance, driven by increased demand, raiding, kidnapping and war captivity.

Manufacturing

• Indigenous production practices were common; these relied on manual labor.
• The contact with the industrialized world led to the introduction of manufacturing technologies and the arrival of skilled foreigners.
• Modern manufacturing Industries including Holeta, Grain Mill and Massawa and other factories were established in different parts of the nation and helped to shape the economic landscape.

Urbanization

• Towns evolved from various factors (political, socio-economic, demographic, and ecological).
• Trade expansion changed older markets and centers into towns.
• Railway construction and trade expansion also contributed to the growth of towns. Development of administrative centers (such as katamas) which became towns and contributed to urbanization.

External Relations

• The end of the “close-door policy” led to diplomatic contacts.
• Travelers and diplomats engaged with Ethiopia and the Horn, sometimes for their governments, for adventure and scientific research, and sometimes driven by colonialism.
• Multiple rulers, including emperors and other regional leaders, dispatched their envoys to various nations.
• Several British and other foreign travelers and diplomats visited Ethiopia. Contacts between Ethiopia and various European powers increased.
• Various treaties and agreements were signed.
• External wars, including conflicts between Ethiopians and various foreign powers (Egyptians, Italians, Mahdists, etc.) marked the period.

Italian Occupation (1936-1941) and the Patriotic Resistance

• The Italians followed a policy of subversion, aimed at weakening the empire's unity, which was coordinated by Corrado Zoli, the governor of Eritrea. These actions aimed at sowing discord through dissatisfaction in northern Ethiopia. This was coupled with diplomatic efforts to establish cordial relations between Italy and Ethiopia. 
• The Italians gained control of Ethiopia with a series of battles and offensives.
• The Ethiopians fought back with fierce resistance; this was characterized by both conventional battles and guerrilla warfare.
• Despite the difficulties (internal divisions, lack of unified leadership, and lack of modern weaponry), the Ethiopians continued their resistance against Italian occupation, until they received support from Great Britain.

This quiz explores the internal developments and external relations of Ethiopia and the Horn from 1800 to 1941. It covers the diverse peoples and states in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia, highlighting their political structures and economic activities. Test your knowledge on the historical significance of these regions.