History of International Relations HIR PDF

HISTORY OF INTERNATI ONAL RELATIONS Exams: Written exam (!!structural answers, not everything, clear, show that you understand)  Starting point; +/- 16th century (Expansion of Westphalia, focusing on 18th and 19th (domination of Westphalia)  17th century Ottoman e...

HISTORY OF INTERNATI ONAL RELATIONS Exams: Written exam (!!structural answers, not everything, clear, show that you understand)  Starting point; +/- 16th century (Expansion of Westphalia, focusing on 18th and 19th (domination of Westphalia)  17th century Ottoman empire declines, 18th century China declined  European history full of war everywhere, unify sometimes and then desunify Mostly concentrate on Europe, cause international relations has been really westernize, Europe controlled the world for a long time (+Regional power like China but never dominated on a Global state) + All those concepts were born in Europe, like the concept of state. Ex: Africa got colonized at mostly 100% per Europe, or central Asia per Russia  State: Before Empires then States (Germanize vision,1500)  Nation state (Westphalian state system established that the source of authority are the people and then it become the nation) (2 ideas about it, the political idea and the one that was mixed with nationalism)  Territorial state  Sovereign state (Born in western Europe)  Fragile/failing state-poor management which still has international recognition -Mixing nation with ethnicity (Ex; Ottoman Empire and Turkey) -Mixing nation state with 2 different political point of view (Ex; America-Liberalism and nationalism) -When the notion of state is unstable ->Sometimes from the beginning; Soudan North + South after war, Top ranking of failing state Why sometimes they fail? Cause they try to fit on every kind of European state. And cause western states had trouble incorporating their systems into especially southern Europe and then Africa) LECTURE  Why did Europe managed to colonize that much? Demography situation + Economic situations, very different than now  -Colonial Empire; French, British… But Russia as well, who was a land based colonial Empire (Russia now is a “Third Rom”, influence the idea that they’re the main protectors, main power)  See board doc abt economy (GDP, Gross domestic product) Comments: -Africa population way lower than now, France quite stagnation-> more colonies were in Sahara, USA biggest increasment with British, Italy very low like Japan, China declined badly so in 80s coming back, reverse mode of Chinese power, they adopted a modern way of industrialization, India declined badly as well -The board is showing how and why Europe was dominating the world in an economic way in the 19th century  See population boards Comments: -European demography was increasing a lot for many years and now were decreasing, whilst there’s demographic explosion in other area of the world. Stable in Asia, increasing in Latin America and Africa  The elements of the contemporary international order: - System states - Identify and nation state - International security and polarity - Stability of international financial and trade system - Multilateralism, international regimes, global governance - Regionalism, integration and fragmentation -Promotion of democracy and liberal rights  North Korea mix of every state but totalitarist, Saudi Arabi mix or sovereign, territorial but not very nation)  Late 18th + beginning 19th Peter the great for example, after visiting Holland he westernizes Russia, beginning of the expansion of the European state in the east and the colonization of America was the expansion in the west, who got accelerate with the fail of the Spanish empire, but Haiti (French colony) started the independence after America. Then after WW1; End of Ottoman Empire, Decolonization, creations of states in Africa with new forms and borders  We’re currently facing the debates of whether we’re living in a Westphalian state system or rather a post-Westphalian system. The term was coined from the Treaty of Westphalia of the 30year war in Europe (1648 It’s a symbolic date of the process but in fact it’s much older, Expansion of Westphalia, focusing on 18 th and 19th (domination of Westphalia))  North-South Division  2 ND LECTURE-14 TH OCTOBER 2024 Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (1997) Jared Diamond  Some civilizations became more successful than others Why? - Better access to military stuffs for example -Development of industry Look at the map now-Eurasia had a quite favorable situation to spread industries, populations… Europe + East Asia= Step to transfer and connections Ex- Silver Road The fleches represents how the expension of things, industries, technology, knowledge are moving in the world (We don’t have to invent anymore just take ideas from others) -Since 15th century, central Asia was way more developed than now (Iran…) cause of this -Hard for Africa compared to Asia for transmit cause of the sahara, natural barrier, And around Congo, climate barrier + huge forrest. Those forest were cut down for agriculture, but we cant change the climate problems. Riviers as well. Then others desert. Germs didn’t help neither (Ex: Cataracte) -About America, American middle east great prairies but moving in the south they become deserts, and in south America there’s Amazonia. Central America is limiting the exchanges as well, especially with Andia. Germs didn’t help as well.When civilizations are based on hood its hard for them to survive later on. -Some civilizations developed more cause they were in a good position from the start. Ex; Do American knew the wheel before c.c? They kne the concept of circle but not the wheel, they didn’t have horses, only lamas or others animals that are not meant to be used with wheels  Roman Empire Example of the premodern idea of state ->Political unity and disunity Split on two side, mostly cause of religions and how advance were the areas. West Europe was less populated, economic system weren’t as visible as in the east…  Early Roman Empire Splitted in 3 parts, Western part that fragmented even more, the eastern part (Byzantine Empire) and the Arabic part. Pattern of how we lose unity and how to recover it, was successful at the beginning but didn’t succeed completely. A lot of reason; Big pandemia, not enough military resources… Reminder; Roman Empire wasn’t the only Empire at the time, huge destruction of the eastern part, didn’t recovered from conflicts, taxes were increasing.  Arab Expansion Arabs expanded and exploited very quickly-> Middle east conquered Mesopotamian, Prussian heritage gave them issues The center of the Empire, Syria, but then the peripheric state became more and more independent. Empire became too large Nowadays the idea of terrorism is based on the fact of reconquering this successful Arabic empire One of the main reasons why roman empire failed as well, most of the land bases Empire, at this time were based on agriculture, problematic for travelling with wheels, easier with rivers…  Carolingian Empire The pic of his expansion was Charlemagne ->In some European languages the term King comes from Charles (Slavic), important of nomadic -Division then Some says that the division has been influenced by the climate. The vision of Charles empire was made on the idea of the recreation of the Roman empire  Mongol Empire (since 1206) Influenced Europe They created the biggest land-based empire of all time, from Korea/China to Russia Belarus… Easy to create cause of the vast territory- How to bring them all together? Family business, They quickly splited on different states They heavily influenced Russia governance, the relations between authority and the people Eastern Europe has been combined by the Mongol empire + Orthodox  Holy Roman Empire Till the 10th century eastern Europe was dominating, then Germany changed that The concept was to germanise some areas It survived many centuries, the highest pic was the 16th century, with a Spanish king- allow the empire to expand in Spain 1570-Begin of religious wars  The Gunpowder Empires Since 16th century they were more expanded and advanced than European for example -Gun powder, military technologies (Ottoman empire, new army) -Recreation of Persian empire -Strong rivality between Roman and Persian Empire (red and purple)-That’s why Ottoman empire didn’t succeed, their attention was always redirected in different areas. They were as well too big in size -Mongols were Muslims, or indouiste-got two options be tolerant or convert, it was the issue of ottoman empire. More taxes to pay if you weren’t Muslims for ex… Problem is when a population is really attached to their traditions, can create big problems  Ottoman Empire Initial problems-Success-Slow declined Starting with more or less todays turkey, with a constant move to the Balkans Too big to survive, the peripheries got controlled by the central government Those kind of empire extend very quickly, but at some point every empire cross is limits, can be cause of transports, economy… impossible to expand even further and protects the lands they already got.-More and more conservative, higher taxes,… to protect themselves  The gunpowder Empires Quick and quick expansion and they decreasment Every Empire had to make a change to modernize to a western way, some didn’t survive  Ming Empire China, as often as it was reunited, it was fragmented, same as Europe One of the elements of the communist legemency is to keep the unity in China, to not experienced fragmentation again-> That’s why the question of Taiwan is so important Golden era of traditional vision of Chinese Empire “The Middle Kingdom”, Traditional vision, China is in the center of the world, more advanced civilization, no equality between China and other civilizations. Some neighbors were considered good enough to be part of it; Korea, Japan, North Vietnam… They all got influenced by Chinese culture Chinese build the wall to stopped other tributes, nomads to attact their lands, agriculture  All others were Barbarians They were able to travel by oceans but they decided to based their empire on the land  Mandala State system Could be divided in two parts Indobouddhist kingdom, mix of heritage, those areas are tolerant in terms of religion cause of that -Several states concentrated on points, pre colonials’ empire that gained their independence  Inca Empire (Not mentioning Mayas cause they were way before) Quite new in this area and still able to expand Just before the arrival of Francisco the pigaro, Spanish. They golden area were just before the arrivals of Spanish, even without borders lines  Aztec Empire Quite new in this area and still able to expand Not enough time to expand cause of the expansion of Spanish  African Civilizations Were consumed by Asia and Europe, even more visible than Inca cause of borders North Africa stayed quite stable, the not expansion of other state is cause of colonization, natural problems… Ethiopia-Possibility to exchange with Arabs cause close  Treaty of Tordesillas  3 RD LECTURE 21 ST OCTOBER 2024 WORLD HISTORY IN 16 T H AND 17 T H CENTURY. THE RISE OF EUROPE “War made the state, and the state made war” Charles Tilly (Focused on the creation of a specific state in western Europe) Intermate relations between state building and war making. Wars happen everywhere not only Europe, specific wars fighting create specific states.  Coercion, Capital, and European Sates (1990) ->Political goals, so concentrate their powers to extract the resources, transform their resources to for ex-military stuff to protect their lands and expand, A state can invest a lot in military stuff but be still very bad  Creation of the state: concentration of coercion and capital  Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire. State organization was mostly based on local lords who controlled relatively small areas. → Peasants gave up revenue to benefit from the security and protection offered by a powerful local lord. → Then, these feudal lands consolidated and required bigger armies in order to after protection from both internal and external threats. → Larger armies are more effective; however, more money was needed to pay these armies. → Feudal lands continued to develop and combine into larger kingdoms ruled by kings. → Kings then demanded money in the form of taxes. → To impose these taxes, they required a protocol for counting and enforcing collections, so they set up formal state institutions, like administration (bureaucracy), tax collectors, armies. (Some states can be combines, ex queen Victoria was the queen of England but emperor of India at the same time)  A state's essential minimum activities: o STATEMAKING: attacking and checking competitors and challengers within the territory claimed by the state. (Most internal job) o WARMAKING: attacking rivals outside the territory already claimed by the state. (Most external job) o PROTECTION: attacking and checking rivals of the rulers' principal allies, whether inside or outside the state's claimed territory. o EXTRACTION: drawing from its subject population the means of state making, warmaking, and protection.  Beyond a certain scale, however, all states found themselves venturing into three other terrains: o ADJUDICATION: authoritative settlement of disputes among members of the subject population; o DISTRIBUTION: intervention in the allocation of goods among members of the subject population; o PRODUCTION: control of the creation and transformation of goods and services by members of the subject population. - In the past the best way to get money and power was to expand, so it created a very aggressive society, effective rulers are better to protect. - What makes a state different than an organization like mafia? First their objective, organizations would be profit, and their legal/illegal actions) (on s’en fou, ce qui est important c’est la relation war making and state making) How did changes in warfare and state organization relate to each other? (Since 990AD) 1. Patrimonialism: a time (up to the fifteenth century) in much of Europe when tribes, feudal levies, urban militias, and similar customary forces played the major part in warfare, and monarchs generally extracted what capital they needed as tribute or rent from lands and populations that lay under their immediate control 2. Brokerage: an era (roughly 1400 to 1700) in important parts of Europe when mercenary forces recruited by contractors predominated in military activity, and rulers relied heavily on formally independent capitalists for loans, for management of revenue-producing enterprises, and for installation and collection of taxes; 3. Nationalization: a period (especially 1700 to 1850 or so in much of Europe) when states created mass armies and navies drawn increasingly from their own national populations, while sovereigns absorbed armed forces directly into the state's administrative structure, and similarly took over the direct operation of the fiscal apparatus, drastically curtailing the involvement of independent contractors; 4. Specialization: an age (from approximately the mid-nineteenth century to the recent past) in which military force grew as a powerful specialized branch of national government, the organizational separation of fiscal from military activity increased, the division of labor between armies and police sharpened, representative institutions came  to have a significant influence over military expenditures, and states took on a greatly expanded range of distributive, regulatory, compensatory, and adjudicative activities.(Gained more in some industries and less in others) First map; 1500 Second one; (Maps of Europe always changes) 1. EUROPE IN 1500 A. The period around 1500 was a time of transitions, the beginning of the early modern era. 1. The Renaissance - a revival of classical loaming, and new ideas and literacy [invention of printing press, around 1450). 2. Decrease of power of the medieval Christian Church (the Great Schism of 1378-1417 3. New lines of rivalry with the civilization of Islam. 4. The rise of the Ottoman Turks from 1299 as 1 new power (the Ottomans advanced on Europe, capturing Gallipoli In 1354, a key position on the Turkish Straits then they won  control of areas south of the Danube River), in 1453, the Ottomans captured Constantinople, the imperial capital of the Byzantine Empire. 5. A conflict was waged on the front lines of Hungary (Including the activities of Prince Vlad Dracula of Wallachia), The anxieties about Turkish advance start to be durable issue. 6. In Spain, a Reconquista or "Reconquest" was completed by 1492, with the fail of the fast Muslim state. Granada. 7. Relations with the Ottomans were not exclusively warlike. B. New worlds (from European perspective) were being „discovered" during the voyages of discovery (Portugal and Spain), and in the 1492 the Americas ware "discover C. At the same time, the theoretical concept of Universalism, inherited from the Middle Ages, endured as a powerful reality. 1. The symbolic primacy of the Holy Roman Emperor (perceived as a continuation of the idea of empire surviving the fall of Rome). 2.New Monarchies A. In response to the crises of the 14th century, a new kind of state began to appear from around 1450, the "New Monarchy" 1. Monarchs. were interested to achieve more centralized and efficient rule, absorbing formerly independent vassal lands under the crown, which became the primary source of authority. 2. New bureaucracies and new armies were symptomatic of the internal, consolidation and monopoly on the use of force that allowed these states a more intense activity in foreign affairs. 3. This process was slow and uneven and new monarchies became the basis of later "nation states." B. France was the classic example of the “new monarchy” model 1. Following the Capetian dynasty, the Valois had contended with English monarchs in the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) and sought to create a consolidated monarchy in its aftermath. 2. King Louis XI, (r. 1461-1483) is often considered the founder of the modernizing French state. 3. His successors Charles VIII (r. 1483- 1498) and Louis XII (r. 1498-1515) sought further expansion of power in a series of Italian wars. 4. King Francis I (r. 1515-1547) embodied the new monarch ideal C. The Spanish Kingdoms (Mix idea if it was a mew monarchie or not) 1. Castile was the most powerful state in Europe in 1500, with a vast New World empire and famous infantry forces 2. While not as modernizing as France, Spain's divided kingdoms had been united by the 1469 marriage of Isabella of Castile (1474-1504) and Ferdinand II of Aragon (r. 1479-1516). 3. Spanish Catholic kings continued the Reconquista and then, the overseas conquest (conquistadores).  4. Since 1496 the Spanish throne was tied to the Habsburg family of Austria due to dynastic marriage. D. England 1. After the civil war of the War of the Roses (1455- 1485); the Tudor dynasty was established by a new monarch, Henry VIl (r. 1485-1509). 2. King Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) revolutionized government and created the Church of England, as the English realm was declared an empire under his control. 3. This consolidation of authority would continue under the long reign of Queen Elizabeth (r. 1558-1603) 4. The crowns of Scotland and England would be united in 1603, creating a unit commonly referred to as "Britain." Last 15th century, beginning of 16th century was the emergence of the new state, with the emergence of the Westphalian a time after. This new states, new monarchies were kind of the beginning of the idea of modern states. ->New monarchies was against the concept of constant wars in Europe and universalism ->16th, 17th, 18th century international and interstate relations were based on mostly dynasty interest and not the states interests 4 TH LECTURE 28 T H OCTOBER 2024 E. The holy Roman Empire (not a “New Monarchy”). 1. The Holly Roman Empire was centered on the German lands in central Europe, not united as a modern nation state (consisting of more than 300 states and units). 2. Its origins went back to the emperor Charlemagne’s crowning in 800, as a revival of ancient, Rome. 3. Its power had already declined in the High Middle Ages, including loss of control over 4. The elective title of emperor was, from the year 1438, half almost uninterruptedly in the family of Habsburg. the "House of Austria."(Since this moment it was the successing emperor system from one dynasty) 5. The peak of greatness was reached by the emperor Maximilan 1 (r.1493-1519), known as the "last knight" 6. His marital diplomacy would have lead to control of Spain, Bohemia, Hungary, Burgundy, and the Netherlands (threatening France as a result). F. Eastern Europe  1. For a brief time, Hungary became the dominant state in eastern Europe under King Matthias Corvinus (r.1498-1490) but then fell to the Ottoman Turkey in the disastrous Battle of Mohacs in 1526. 2. Poland-Lithuania grew out of a dynastic union of the states. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania united with the Polish kingdom to fight organize the crusading Teutonic Knights (predecessors of Prussia), whom they defended as the 1410 Battle of Tannenberg. 3. Poland-Lithuania was the largest state in Europe. (Big fight with Grand duchy of Muscovy which lead to the futures tensions between groupal states) 4. Grand Duchy of Muscovy, which would become the core of Russia in the future, was remote and interacted little with Europe at this period. (Future Russia, not really part of Europe at this time) 5. 16th century, rise of the bohemian-Hungarian empire 3.Warfare 1. The enormous new costs of changing warfare (in weaponry, scale, and organization) helped drive the formation of new monarchies. 1) Gunpowder, used in war from the early 14th century, revolutionized the battlefield with cannon and misters (used in conjunction with pikes) and downgraded sable cavalry, with serious social implications. 2) These changes ended chivalry on the field and transformed the art of fortification as well as sea power. 3) Armies grew in size to put concentrated Firepower into the field, often relying on mercenary professionals. 1. Italian early modern interstate system A. in Renaissance Italy (1350-1550) Important Innovations in Interstate politics took place. B. The Italian peninsula functioned as a laboratory a new emerging international politics. 1) The creation of modern diplomacy. 2) Italy as a space protected from outside Intervention (the result of the earlier conflict between the Holy Roman Emperors and the papacy)- 3) The rise of city states. Five states emerged: Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of Naples. They were similar to the new monarchies. 4) Economic prosperity, geographic location, trade connections, and flourishing urban economies). C. Italian states rivalry- 1) Military entrepreneurs called condottieri fielded mercenary armies for the states. 2) The mercenaries developed a style of warfare that prolonged wars and sought to avoid casualties. 2. Italian Disaster in 1494 A. The Italy became an arena for outside powers rivalry  1) France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire sought control of Italy 2) The French invasion of 1494 was so important that some historians date the beginning of the modern age from it. The French King Charles VIII (1483-1498) quickly defeated many cities and took Naples in 1495. 3) The earlier balance of power was destroyed and provoked further intervention. B. Milan, Venice, the Papal and others Italian states joined Spain and the holy roman empire in the holy leagues in 1495 to resist the French who now retreated 1) France and Spain continued to fight over the control of Italy with repeated invasions 2) Spain took the control over Naples 3) Habsburg – Valois wars over Italy continued for the next three decades, until Spanish supremacy was recognized by France in the treaty of Cambrai in 1529. C. Italy was devastated by outside powers fighting over a larger issue; The rivalry between the Habsburg and Valois dynasties 1. 16TH-CENTURY EUROPE A. The 16th century was dominated by the struggles for authority and supremacy between universal rule over the continent, and dynastic interests of new monarchies 1) Universalism “a concept of world order that represented a blending of the traditions of the Roman Empire and the Catholic Church”. 2) The growing role of the Habsburg (under Charles V their domains included Austria, German lands, the Spanish Kingdoms and their overseas colonies, the Netherlands, and Naples). 3) Other European powers rallied against the Habsburgs, often led by France, whose royal family the Valois opposed Habsburg aims, especially in Italy 2.Emperor Charles V A) The Habsburg emperor Charles V (1519-1556) inherited vast lands and power that revived imperial authority, ruling about half of Europe and he ruled a quarter of European population. 1) His actions would be frustrated by a combination of challenges: rivalry with France, clashes with the Turks, The reformation, and disorder in Germany and the Hollys Roman Empire 2) Since that moment France cultivated an alliance with the Ottoman Turks 3) The Ottoman empire, under the rules of Sultan Sulieman the Magnificent (1520-1566) was at his peak of expansion (victory of Mohacs in 1526, the siege of Vienna in 1529, conquest of Tunis and Algeria). 4) The protestant reform movements turned into a serious ideological challenge (Started in 1517 by the German monk Martin Luther who proclaimed his 95 theses) 5)By 1600 half of Europe was protestant and the catholic Church’s council of Trent launched a counter reformation 6)Political disorders in the German lands coincided with religious ferment where German princes opposed stronger imperial authority. The result was a religious war that was settled in the 1555 peace of Augsburg. Which recognized the fractures in Germany and accepted the territorial and authority of princes in their own lands, by the formula “whose rule, his religion” (culus regio elus religio). 7) The Habsburg lands were divided between Spain, which went to Charles's son Phillip, and the German lands, which went to Charles's brother, Ferdinand. 8)The king Philip Il of Spain (1556-1598) continued the elements of universalist policy of his father. He established Habsburg dominance in Italy and spread Spanish influence in Asia (The Philippines) he won a naval victory of Lepanto in1571 over the Turks and in 1580 Spain took Portugal. 9) But at the same time, revolt in the Netherland in 1566 against Habsburg rule underlined Spanish overextension and future decline. In 1588, Philip dispatched the Armada against England, in crusade against the Protestant power, but it met with disaster. 3. French Crisis and Renewal A) In this era, France experiences a serious internal crisis. The religious war last for 30 years (1562-1598), between Catholics and Protestants Huguenots. 1) At least, in 1594, the leader of Huguenots, Henri de Navarre, converted to Catholicism and became Henry IV, the first king of Bourbon family 2) He was succeeded in 1610 his son, Louis XIII, his main advisor was Cardinal Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu serving as chief minister from 1624 to 1642. 3) Richelieu’s foreign policy put French interests before religious identity, opposing Habsburg interests and allying with protestants to prevent encirclement 4)He has been called “The father of the modern state system” 5)Main concepts is raison d’etat, “the reason of the state”, as the interest of the state justifies the measures undertaken for it. ->He created a new type of government, which leaded to absolutism afterwards. MAP (There would be a lot of changes) 4.17 T H CENTURY EUROPE (When Habsburgs empire start to decline)  States, powers and empires  Spanish and Portugal colonial empires  France, England and the Netherlands  Power vacuum on German Lands  Sweden, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia  The patterns of rivalry  France and Habsburg   The Habsburgs and Ottoman Empire  Central and Eastern Europe 5.Thirty years war 1618-1648 A. The internal crisis in Holy Roman Empire (structural, economies, political, religious, dynastic. B. The changes in European politics (conflict in Central Europe, but also the rivalry between France and Spain)- C. The war intertwined religious and political motives. D. Phases: 1) Bohemian Phase (1618-1625) 2) Danish Phase (1625-1629) 3) Swedish Phase (1630-1635) 4) French Phase (1635-1648) E. The outcome. 1) The devastation of large portion of German lands, which create an intellectual reaction. 2) Erosion of religious motives, instead the dynastic politics become dominant. 3) The need to create a new order in Europe. 4) The Habsburg ambition of a universal monarchy had been definitively frustrated, in part by the rising power of states like France and Sweden. 5) As the war was centered on the German lands, it exposed the vulnerability of central Europe as a power vacuum. 6.The Peace of Westphalia A. Many historians and IR theorists consider the 1648 settlement of the Thirty Years' War to be of epochal significance, marking the recognition of sovereign states in International relations. 1) For some, it defines the start of the modern age, a world order enduring to the present. 2) Other historians debate this view. 3) Some assert that 1648 marks a newly secular settlement. B. The Peace was signed October 24, 1648 (the Peace of the Pyrenees of 1659 is sometimes seen as a late part of this process). 1) Catholic negotiations were based in Münster in western Germany, Protestant diplomats at Osnabrück, some 25 miles away. 2) Not all powers participated, with England, Poland, and Russia absent. 3) Questions of etiquette, precedence, and procedure were new, with an estimated 200 rulers and thousands of diplomats participating. 4) The key participants were the Holy Roman Empire and its allies on one side, France and Sweden and their allies on the other. 5) Exhaustion was a key factor in bringing on the desire for peace and gave the treaty its compromise character. C. The outcome of the treaty recognized the move toward rulers" territorial superiority in all matters ecclesiastical as well as political. 1) The religious settlement built on the earlier formulas of the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, adding equal status for Calvinists. 2) Sovereign independence was accented, with the recognition of the independence of the Dutch United Provinces and Switzerland, while within the Holy Roman  Empire, the more than 300 principalities were also sovereign, thus able to make peace and war at their own will. 3) In this reorganization of the Empire, the German lands became a power vacuum, with outside powers (France and Sweden) poised to maintain the status quo. 4) In territorial changes, France gained parts of Alsace, Sweden gained northern German lands, and Brandenburg (which later becomes Prussia) grew to become the second most powerful force within the Empire, while the Habsburgs now redirected their ambitions toward their Austrian dynastic lands and away from universal empire. 5) Sweden's rise to power. 5 TH LECTURE 4 TH NOVEMBER 2024 A. France took on a new position in Europe after the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. 1) With Habsburg decline, France became the greatest power on the continent. 2) Whereas French rulers had earlier helped frustrate Habsburg ambitions In Europe, they now had achieved such a powerful position that France came to be seen as the main contender for a hegemonic role. 3) France's policies were steered by two (cleric-)statesmen, Richelieu and Mazarin, and then personally by King Louis XIV, the embodiment of Absolutism. (Watch the picture of Louis XIV, you can see the difference through the years with the other kings) ->Treaty of Westphalia doesn’t mean no conflicts anymore but a new era of them. (Before economy based on Agriculture) ->France was the most populated country in Europe (Changed in the 19 th century with the growing expansion of Russian population)  The Absolutist Ideology A. In line with the Baroque age's fascination with power, European political thinkers argued for the divine right of kings to absolute rule, answerable only to God. B. Pragmatically, absolutism was part of the attempt to reorganize and rebuild In the wake of the Thirty Years' War and the other conflicts of the previous century. 1) Rise of taxation. (Needs of money: Bigger army, showing off Versailles, naval power…) 2) Larger permanent armies were enormously expensive, consuming nearly half of state peacetime budgets. 3) The state apparatus expanded dramatically. 4) Mercantilist economic policies sanctioned State intervention and steering of the market. 5) Nobles and older representative bodies sought to resist the claims of royal absolutism, with varying success in different European countries. C. The preeminent exemplar of absolutism was France's Louis XIV, imitated throughout Europe during what came to be the Age of Louis XIV.   Rejected in the French revolution cause the source of the power were the people, so the state can’t be above the law, emergence of the “Rule of the law”. WORLD HISTORY IN THE 17 T H -18 T H CENTURY: THE BALANCE OF POW ER  1648 – 1740 A. Since Habsburg might had been checked from 1500-1648, the growing French power provoked coalitions to resist its hegemony. The emergence of other powers in Europe. B. The Great Powers were key players in the new European state system. A. Europe was beset with many conflicts in this period (they were usually limited in nature - only seven years in all of the 17th century without war in Europe). B. A common language of diplomacy-French. (Before it was Polish) C. Certain abiding themes marked the dynamic international scene. 1) British-French rivalry was rising- 2) New powers were rising in the East: Austria, Prussia, and Russia. 3) In the balance of power, France would often ally itself with Sweden(Limited capabilities, especially after 18 th century with the rise of Russia) and Poland (Usually in conflict with Sweden), while Britain saw Austria as a valuable counterweight. D. We see also the emergence of states that act as Great Powers in the international system.  Great Powers A. The Netherlands (Not one of the main 5 great powers) (also known as Holland or the United Provinces) experienced a "Golden Age" in the 17th century, with Amsterdam the world's richest city. 1) Around 1700, the Dutch were the richest country per capita in Europe, profiting by foreign trade (from the Baltic to New Amsterdam [New York], Cape Town, and the East Indies), banking, and acting as "shipper of the nations" on the seas. 2) A series of Anglo-Dutch wars (from 1652-1674) sparked by commercial and naval rivalry, as well as wars against Louis XIV of France, led to Dutch decline by the 1720s. B. Great Britain emerged as the main naval and commercial power, with a population of nine million in 1700. 1) The United Kingdom of Great Britain was formed in 1707 with the union of England and Scotland. 2) The Stuart royal family had succeeded after the death of the Tudor Queen Elizabeth in 1603, and after the 1688 Glorious Revolution the Stuart King James II was replaced by King William of Orange and his wife, Queen Mary. (Expansion of rivalry with France) 3) This event had wide international ramifications, as William Ill continued his trademark pursuit of coalitions to counterbalance Louis XIV of France. 4) A new dynasty came to power in 1714, the Hanoverians. (German dynasty- >Preserving balance of power, no one can fully dominate the German lands) 5) A military fiscal state was being built (as the army and navy tripled in size between 1680 and 1780). 6) Britain's empire also expanded, with a large flow of colonists overseas and clashes with Spain. C. Austria became the new power base for the Habsburgs, after the fatal weakening of the Holy Roman Empire at the Peace of Westphalia. 1) At the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, Austria had won possessions in Italy and the Low Countries in the partition of Spanish territories. (Like Belgium, Rebalancing movement of power to fight France) 2) After France, Austria became the strongest power on the continent. 3) Austria was also strengthened by victories against the Turks in the reign of Leopold | (r. 1685-1705). 4) From 1683 to 1739, Austria pushed back Turkish control in southeastern Europe. 5) By 1700, Austria had doubled its territories, and its expansion in the southeast redirected its interests toward the Balkans, away from the Holy Roman Empire. 6) Austria came to fear Russian expansion in the Balkan region, potentially clashing with its own position. D. The Kingdom of Prussia (Brandenburg- Prussia) 1) The princely Hohenzollern family had ruled Brandenburg in northern Germany since 1415 and in 1618 gained the Duchy of Prussia on the Baltic a former crusader state. 2) Along with territories on the Rhine, the scattered nature of the patrimony impelled construction of a state with an outsized military by Frederick William, “The Great Elector” (r. 1640-1688). 3) His son earned elevation to the royal title in 1701, as king Frederick I (г. 1701- 1713) 4) Frederick I's son, the "Soldier King" Frederick William (r. 1713-1740) doubled the size of the army again. 5) In 1740, Fredrick William I was succeeded by his son Frederick II "The great" who achieved Great Powers status for Prussia.(He doubled the territory of Russia, mostly by taking the territory of Silesia from Austria) 6) Prussia was a unique upstart state, fielding the third or fourth largest army in Europe by 1750, although ranking thirteen in population.  High punishment: was easy to escape cause it was mostly a land based power, so they had to put hard consequences to make people fear the authorities. New Power rising I. New Groat Powers to the North and East A. Expansion of the European state system. B. Sweden, Poland, Prussia, and Russia. II. The "Baltic Question" A. The area around the Baltic See and Scandinavia took on new significance. B. Now powers Russa und Prussia were on the rise, as Sweden and Poland declined. C. Initial "Baltic Question": Wha would dominate the Baltic Sea? III. Sweden A. A new dynasty care to power in Sweden (the Vasas) and built an absolute monarchy  (a) Gustavus 1l Adolphus (1612-1632), and the Thirty Youns' War. (b) Sweden created a military power. IV. Poland-Lithuania A. The 1569 Union of Lublin created the "Commonwealth of Two Nations," the largest state In Europe with a population of eight million (on elective monarchy and strong central diet controlled by nobles) (i) Rivalry with Sweden, Muscovy, and Ottoman Empire. 6 TH LECTURE 11 T H NOVEMBER 2024 New powers rising   New great powers to the north and the east  Le “Baltic question”  Sweden  Poland-Lithuania The Great northern war At the end of this was, the geopolitical landscape was transformed, with Russia and Prussia as chief power, Denmark and Sweden pushed aside and Poland sinking. Russia, Polish king, and Denmark against Sweden The war was concluded by the treaty of Neustadt of 1721 VII. Catherine “The Great” A. As successor to Peter after four decades of weaker leadership, Catherine the great came to power in 1762 after the murder of her husband Peter III 1. Her achievements in foreign policy were formidable in the west and in the south of Europe B. One of her projects was the “Northern system” on alliance with Prussia C. Two wars against the Ottomans led to the conquest of the Crimea and an access the Black Sea 1. Russia gained the right to present the interests of orthodox Christians in the Ottoman empire The enlightenment A. Nex enlightenment ideas in the 18 th century promoted the primacy of reason 1. This implied individual freedom of thought, religious tolerance, and cosmopolitanism based of sharped principles B. International law, encyclopedia and republicanism (Emmerich de Vattel, Immanuel Kant, Voltaire, 7 TH LECTURE 25 T H NOVEMBER 2024 Transformed European Politics? A. The last quarter of the 18th century was a time of important transitions in international politics, breaking with many of the assumptions and practices of the ancien régime. B. A shift from unrestrained power politics to more cooperative arrangements (especially between 1815-1848) C. The emergence of nationalism, together with socialism and liberalism Great Powers (population)  The Russian Empire: around 40 million (1797).  France: 29 million (1789)-  Habsburgs: 22 milion.  Prussia: 10,7 million (1806).  United Kingdom: around 15 million (1815).  French Empire (1812): 43,7 milion (and around 24 million in „allied" states).  Russia doubles its population  France doubled Britain same strating point as France, but tripled its population  Germany got pretty much the same strating point as the Habsburg empire  Italy didn’t change as much as the others (Economy) Explanation of the Russian decreasment; Expansion to the Balkans, which ddnt add anything to the economics capital The American revolution A. The American Revolution and War of Independence (1775-1783). B. The Seven Years' War (1756- 1763) prepared the situation for revolution in the colonies. 1. The costs of the war forced the British for imperial and fiscal reorganization. (Colonies should pay more) 2. Differences between the metropolis and the colonies. C. The outcome of the War of Independence (started in 1776) remained largely dependent on intervention of other European powers 1. The colonists were setting support is France. 2. After the American victory as Saratoga in 1776 France signed an alliance with the Americans in 1778, motivated by considerations of the European balance of powers. 3. Spain joined in1779 to challenge British naval power, hoping so regain Gibraltar. 4. Other European powers refused to stop trading with the Americans. 5. The British forces suffered defeat ad Yorktown in 1781, D. Treaty of Paris of September 1783, in which Britain gave up lands beyond the Appalachians. E. Ein results on defeat, in Briain, the process of reorganization of administration and politics started (the creation in 1801 of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland).  F. American leaders sought to stay apart from European politics. Never less both sides were affected Decolonization of the Americas A. United States (1783) B. Haiti (1804) C. Spanish American Wars of Independence (1808-1833) a) The Bourbon reforms b) Military protection c) Enligthment ideals d) The Peninsular War D. Independence of Brazil (1822- 1825) French Revolution of 1789 A. The French Revolution grew out of the systemic crisis of the French state. 1. France had been at war for more than a century, and military expenses consumed throw quarters of the budget. 2. The expenses of intervention in the American conflict contributed to the financial emergency. 3. King Louis XVI convened the Estates General in May 1789 to approve fiscal reform. Demands of radical reforms and now constitution. (Clergé/Nobility and then everybody else) 4. The revolutionaries abolished feudal duties, declared the Rights of Man, and established a republic in 1792. B. In an interplay of domestic and foreign actors, revolutionary France declared war on America on April 20 1792. 1. The king was beheaded on January 1793. 2. Radicalization at home followed with the reign of Terror C. France faced the European monarchies in a new kind of ideological conflict, unleashing nationalism and mass politics. D. At first European powers were slowly reacting. 1. Austria, Prussia, and Russia were preoccupied partitions of Poland 2. The weakening of France in international politics through international turmoil E. A quarter-century of international turmoil followed 1. Austria and Britain played roles in opposing the French in coalitions 2. Playing its traditional role of offshore balancer, Britain functioned as "paymaster" for the coalitions with subsidies. BETW EEN STABILIZATION AND REVOLUTION (FIRST HALF OF 19TH CENTURY) A. The Significance of the Congress of Vienna A. The Congress of Vienna at the end of the French Revolutionary and the Napoleonic Wars was the third great peace congress in modern European history after the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia and the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht. B. The result of the congress was the creation of a system of Great Power consultation among the five leading powers (a pentarchy): Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France. C. The negotiations were the product of a small circle of elite political leaders and diplomats. 1. The congress decided the fate of millions, deliberately redrawing maps without regard for nationality. 2. The congress concerned itself almost exclusively with European affairs. B. The Results of the Congress of Vienna A. The congress produced large territorial revisions. 1. France was encircled by new Prussian lands on the Rhine (Prussia thus replacing Austria as a potential French rival), an enlarged Kingdom of the Netherlands (including Belgium), and an expanded Piedmont in Italy (the Kingdom of Sardinia). 2. Swiss neutrality was recognized. 3. German lands were not unified but were collected into a loose confederation (Deutscher Bund) presided over by Austria; the situation resembled that of the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia. 4. Russia retained Finland and gained land from Sweden, which in turn received Norway from defeated Denmark. Also gained control over Congress Poland. 5. Britain gained more colonial holdings: Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka) and South Africa. B. The congress also handled other significant issues. 1. A general condemnation of the slave trade. 2. The congress regulated the navigation of international rivers. 3. The questions of diplomatic precedence were finally settled, establishing different classes of diplomats whose precedence was determined by their credentialing. As well it was determined that treaties were to be signed in French alphabetical order. THE CONCERT OF EUROPE SYSTEM I. Aims and Achievements of the Concert of Europe System A. The Concert of Europe - the victorious Great Powers (Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia) and France. B. The Concert of Europe, under Metternich’s management, functioned fully for seven years after the Congress of Vienna. 1. Its aim was continuing cooperation between the Great Powers to guarantee the status quo. 2. If and when international problems arose, they were to be dealt with in a cooperative fashion. 3. A particular vision of European consensus was implied.  Only functionnated for 7 years 8 TH LECTURE 2 ND DECEMBER II. The Holy Alliance A. The Holy Alliance was launched in the fall of 1815 to create a more substantial institution signed in the name of the monarchs themselves. 1. Tsar Alexander I urged a mystical scheme for Europe to become a Christian nation based on Christian identity and monarchical order.  2. The religious message refutes the idea that politics had become secular. B. Great Britain was not part of it. 1. Divides between Britain and the “Eastern Courts.” III. CHALLENGES TO THE BALANCE OF POWER CONCEPT A. Revolutions in 1830 and 1848. B. Less violent but still significant were intellectual challenges to the dominant concept of international politics. 1. Nationalists rejected the primacy of stability and sought revision. 2. Liberals trusted in economic interrelation rather than traditional diplomacy and promoted projects for European federation. 3. Socialism. C. Peace societies began grassroots work, especially in liberal Anglo-Saxon countries. EASTERN AND W ESTERN QUESTIONS I. THE EASTERN QUESTION I. The Ottoman Empire had remained formally outside the European system of states. 1. The empire came to be called “The Sick Man of Europe.” 2. As Balkan peoples became independent, this decolonization was called “Balkanization.” II. The Eastern Question asked what future lay ahead for the Ottoman realm. III. The stakes were high as all Great Powers, except for Prussia, had interests there. 1. France sought trade and land, beginning its expansion into Algeria in 1830. 2. Russian policy dreamed of taking Constantinople in fulfillment of an imperial and religious mission and gaining commercial and military way out to the Mediterranean. 3. Britain sought to confirm its preeminence in the Mediterranean, its trade, and its security of India. 4. Austria was concerned over control of the neighboring Balkan area. IV. Inevitably, frictions arose between the European powers. V. Ottoman territories in the Balkans experienced intense internal nationalisms among Christian subject peoples (Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians, and others). VI. Serbia won autonomy. VII. The Greek War of Independence (1821–1830). VIII. Russia’s influence worried the other European powers. IX. The 1830s saw a crucial turn as Britain solidified a policy of helping maintain the Ottoman Empire.  II. THE MONROE DOCTRINE TO THE WEST A. America’s 1823 Monroe Doctrine was prompted by attempts to extend the Holy Alliance’s activity to the world beyond Europe. B. After revolts, Spain’s Latin American colonies won independence by the 1820s. C. Great Britain was opposing to the idea of sending the intervention forces. D. In December 1823, President James Monroe articulated the Monroe Doctrine. 1. It closed off the western hemisphere for European Colonialism. 2. Since America alone could not enforce the doctrine, the British navy provided that role. E. The outcome was tied to the European balance of power. 1. Great Britain recognized the independence of Spanish colonies and Brazil. 2. Under the cover of the Monroe Doctrine, the United States grew to Great Power status. III. BEYOND EUROPE A. In another expansion of the state system, European Colonialism revived in 1830 after a period of disintegration. 1. After 1815, only Great Britain and the Netherlands had large overseas empires. B. Growing friction between Russia and Great Britain in central Asia came to be called “The Great Game” and led to two British invasions of Afghanistan in the 1830s and 1870s. C. China increasingly lost control and submitted to unequal extraterritorial treaties. 1. China resisted the British East India Company’s opium sales. 2. The 1839 Opium War and the Treaty of Nanking of 1842, which opened more ports to Britain, ceded Hong Kong (returned to China in 1997), and formalized the extraterritoriality of these bases. D. Indochina likewise experienced European encroachments and competition. E. Britain and France also competed in the Pacific. F. The Suez Canal (opened in 1869). 1. The Suez Canal would play an important geopolitical role in later Imperialism. THE CRIMEAN WAR I. THE BACKGROUND OF THE CRIMEAN WAR A. In 1854–1856, the earlier allies of 1815 now went to war in a crucial breakdown of the Concert of Europe. 1. Afterward, a more competitive international politics emerged. 2. This conflict grew out of the Eastern Question and concern over control of the Turkish Straits.  3. France played a renewed expansive role in the conflict. 4. In Britain, public opinion played an important role in urging war after the long British- Russian rivalry. 5. Russia’s Nicholas I suggested partitioning the Ottoman Empire. B. Important religious background involved conflict over holy sites in Palestine. II. RESULTS OF THE WAR A. The Concert of Europe had been damaged. B. The war had brought new stature to Napoleon III and to Sardinia. C. Austrian policy: 1. Austria lost Russian support without gaining the support of Britain and France. 2. Austria would be left exposed and without help during the upcoming crises in Italy and German lands. D. Russia now pulled back in an effort at great reforms of its military and its society. 1. Away from the European arena, Russia pursued expansion in Armenia, Georgia, Turkestan, and central Asia. 2. A crucial result would be Russian neutrality when central Europe was reshaped by Bismarck from 1864 to 1871. E. The Eastern Question was not resolved. 9 TH LECTURE 9 TH DECEMBER The Change of European State System I. Unification of Italy A. The rise of more volatile international politics that followed the breakdown of the Concert of Europe: Italian unification (the Italian Question), as well as the ideological energies of nationalism. B. The role of the constitutional monarchy of Piedmont (formally the Kingdom of Sardinia) in northern Italy, ruled by the House of Savoy. C. The role of Great Powers. D. War with Austria (1859). 1. In June and July the French won bloody victories at Magenta and Solferino (Henri Dunant and Red Cross). 2. Within six weeks, the Austrians had been expelled from Lombardy; revolts spread through many Italian states. E. Revolt broke out in Sicily against the Bourbons, 1860. F. A united kingdom of Italy under King Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed in March 1861. G. Venetia was joined to Italy in 1866 as a result of Austria’s defeat by Prussia. H. The Italian kingdom finally absorbed Rome in 1870 when French troops stationed there were withdrawn for war with German states. II. The outcome of Italian Unification A. Italian unification demonstrated that change was possible in the international environment, breaking with the earlier politics of stability under the Concert of Europe. 1. It was the first substantial 2. The new sense of possibility redrawing of the map since 1815 liberated less-restrained and had been accomplished by war. statesmen. B. It was not clear, however, whether Italy was a full-fledged Great Power, as Bismarck said that it possessed a “big appetite, but bad teeth.” I. The Previous Evolution of Germany A. In the past, German fragmentation was a keystone of international order (as at the Treaty of Westphalia). 1. German dualism and Austro-Prussian rivalry were enduring patterns. 2. German nationalists came close to unification in 1848. 3. German lands remained divided into 39 states, loosely tied in the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund). B. Prussia was a growing power. C. The man who manipulated and broke these enduring patterns was Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898), called the “Iron Chancellor” and the “Conservative Revolutionary.” 1. Bismarck’s philosophical stance was power politics, Realpolitik, a version of raison d’état. In a September 1862 speech, he famously proclaimed, “The great issues  of the age are not settled by speeches and majority votes-that was the error of 1848 and 1849-but by blood and iron.” 2. In the 1850s, Bismarck recognized Austria as an opponent and declared Germany too small for both Prussia and Austria, breaking with Holy Alliance ideas. II. Wars A. The Danish War 1864. B. The Austrian War 1866. 1. Six centuries of Habsburg power in Germany ended. 2. Internal Austrian reorganization established the dual monarchy of Austria- Hungary. 3. Austria was weakened in international affairs. 4. In the long term, Austria-Hungary was shut out of the West and now turned southeast to the Balkans. C. The Franco-Prussian War 1870-71. 1. France agreed to pay a huge indemnity. 2. Alsace and part of Lorraine were stripped from France. III. The German Empire A. A new German Empire (Kaiserreich) was declared at Versailles’ Hall of Mirrors in January 1871, with King Wilhelm I as the new Kaiser of Germany. B. In international terms, a new Great Power appeared on the continent. 1. Prussia had been the least of the Great Powers but now had become the strongest on the continent. 2. Observers spoke of the new “German Problem”—what would be the role of this new power? C. France’s Third Republic was set up in 1875. Traumatized by defeat and lost provinces, France sought to escape isolation. D. Russia used the instability to throw off the Black Sea Clauses of 1856 (neutrality of the Black Sea). 1. Weakened Austria-Hungary could not resist. E. The Eastern Question could now come into play again. F. The key problem Bismarck faced was how to integrate Germany into the new state system. The Bismarckian System I. The goal: to find a way of reconciling the Germany’s neighbors to the fact of the German unification and to present Germany as a guarantor of stability. A. The period from 1871 to 1914 has been largely called an era of stability in Europe. 1. The challenges: to find new principles to provide balance after the destruction of the Concert of Europe; growing nationalism (in foreign affairs, the multiethnic empires). 2. Germany as a „honest broker”.  3. Germany should be always in a coalition of three (of the five Great Powers); to isolate France and keep it weak; other powers should be encouraged in Imperialism overseas (not Germany); close relations with Russia, and the survival of a weaker Austria- Hungary should be ensured (increasing challenge). LECTURE 10TH 16TH DECEMBER The Great Eastern Crisis of 1875-1878 A. Pan-Slavism in Russia and Eastern Europe (form of nationalism under Russian patronage). B. The outbreak of the crisis: the July 1875 revolt in Bosnia-Herzegovina against Ottoman rule, in June 1876 Serbia and Montenegro went to war against the Ottomans (they were defeated). The April 1876 Bulgarian uprising. C. Russia prepared to intervene (Austro-Hungarian neutrality for the promise of Bosnia-Herzegovina). Russia started the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). After the Congress of Berlin, Bismarck starts to build a network of alliances (Germany at their center). A secret alliance with Austria-Hungary against Russian attack: the 1879 Dual Alliance. Italy joined as an ally in 1882, (due to the French seizure of Tunisia in 1881). The Bulgarian Crisis - 1885-1887: 1. Bulgaria was in conflict with Serbia. Only Austrian intervention stopped Serbia’s complete defeat by Bulgaria. Russia, to regain its influence, supports Bulgaria but was opposed by Austria-Hungary. 2. The Mediterranean Agreements of 1887: Britain, Austria-Hungary, and Italy joined to oppose Russian expansion and to preserve the status quo. THE AGE OF COLONIALISM Modernization: 1. The processes of social change that historically first occured in Western Europe and which have subsequently become global. 2. It is multifaceted process involving changes in politics and in economic, cultural, technical, psychological and intellectual aspects of human relations. The changes are not uniform and inevitable. 3. Simplistic view: these changes represent ‘progress’ (rejected). 4. During the Cold War era in world politics modernization processes became politicized into ideas about ‘development’ and ‘nation-building’. HIGH/NEW IMPERIALISM A. After 1869, an intense wave of annexations swiftly carved up Africa, large parts of Asia, and the Pacific Islands. B. Over three decades, European powers expanded dramatically, occupying three-quarters of the world’s land by 1914. 1. In 1875, European colonies were less than 10 percent of Africa, while by 1895 they were more than 90 percent. 2. By the end of the scramble, the largest empires in the world were, in order, Britain, Russia, and France. C. This new Imperialism differed from earlier expansion. 1. Earlier Imperialism included the Spanish and Portuguese empires of the 15th and 16th centuries and the overseas mercantilist empires of France, Britain, and the Netherlands of the 17th and 18th centuries. 2. Older Colonialism emphasized trade and settlement.  3. By the early 19th century, American empires were lost, but some expansion continued as France moved into North Africa and Vietnam, while Britain took South Africa and consolidated rule in India. 4. Key characteristics of new Imperialism were its speed, intensity of exploitation, and public approval and involvement. Colonialism: 1. It involves the settlement of foreign territories, the maintenance of rule over a subordinate population and the separation of the ruling group from the subject population. 2. The relationship between the ‘mother country’ and the colony is usually exploitive. 3. Characteristic features involve political and legal domination by an alien minority, economic exploitation and dependency and racial and cultural inequality. 4. Colonialism involves more or less strict separation from the metropolitan centre, the reason being that colonies exist to serve the needs of the colonizing power and as such occupy a subordinate and servile role. A. Until the nineteenth century, the practice was so common in international affairs that it generated little opposition. It was seen to be an inevitable consequence of great power politics. B. With the rise of liberalism, nationalism and communism, the concept and the practices associated with it increasingly came to be regarded as illegitimate. C. The concept is not a precise one but its essence involves unequal rights, separation and deliberate exploitation. Imperialism A. A complex phenomenon that results from a combination of a number of often disparate elements which existed in some imperialisms, but not in others. Difficulty in use of a mono-causal or deterministic explanation. B. Refers to the relationship of a hegemonic state to subordinate states, nations or peoples under its control. C. An imperial policy usually means a deliberate projection of a state’s power beyond the area of its original jurisdiction with the object of forming one coherent political and administrative unit under the control of the hegemon. D. Two distinct phases: a. mercantilist or dynastic imperialism which dates roughly from 1492 to 1763 and which saw the Western hemisphere and much of Asia come under European control; and b. ‘new’ imperialism 1870—1914, which witnessed the subjugation by Europe of most of Africa and part of the Far East/East Asia. A. Theories of imperialism: A. Linking the phenomenon with the demands of maturing capitalism for markets, investment opportunities, raw materials and cheap labour. The concept adopted then by Marxism/Leninism B. The competitive urge generated by monopoly capitalism would inevitably result in generalized imperialist world wars which would in turn destroy capitalism itself, thus preparing the way for the establishment of socialism. C. The equation capitalism = imperialism = war has had influence in the twentieth- century world. D. Alternative explanations: the demands of power politics, strategic imperatives, diplomatic manoeuvrings, the search for honour and prestige, the rise of assertive nationalism, changes in military technology, the shift in sea-power from sail to steam, developments in communications, the growth in the power of the media, the extension of the railway system, the invention of the telegraph, the humanitarian or missionary impulses and racial ideologies („white man’s burden”). E. The realist school where imperialism is regarded as a natural, and if not curbed, inevitable consequence of the anarchic, multi-state international system. II. Motives for High/New Imperialism A. Economic motivations. 1. Many European states retreated from free trade after the 1873 global depression that lasted until 1896. 2. The downturn produced intensely competitive outlooks. 3. Profits were not general, and trade tended to follow the flag. B. European technologies of empire, including gunboats, machine guns, and the use of tropical medicines such as quinine against malaria, afforded motivation as well. C. Cultural explanations include religion, ideologies of civilizing missions, racism, and Social Darwinism. D. Some interpretations favor the primacy of domestic politics and argue for “Social Imperialism.” E. Another important factor involves considerations of the European balance of power. 1. Imperialist conquest could be driven by reasons of prestige and strategic significance.  2. Colonial acquisition took on a dynamic of its own as the British found themselves seeking to secure access to India. 3. The scramble for colonies as a safety valve defusing the potential for conflict in Europe. 4. The growth in international tensions caused by Imperialism as precursors to World War I in 1914. 5. The most serious imperial rivalry was between France and Britain. 6. Bismarck encouraged Colonialism in other powers but considered it “humbug” himself. 7. Preoccupied with domestic problems and crises closer to home, Austria-Hungary was not involved in Imperialism. F. High/New Imperialism had large and small effects. 1. Imperialism knit together a globalized economy. 2. Non-Western countries were integrated into the expanded European system, often unwillingly (e.g., Britain pressing China to establish a foreign office in 1861). 3. Devastation wrought on the colonized was tremendous, destroying societies and cultures. 4. Even after decolonization, arbitrary borders created by imperialist powers remained problematic. LECTURE 11 9 TH JANUARY III. The “Scramble for Africa” A. French and British rivalry opened the “Scramble for Africa” B. British control of Egypt (The Egyptian Question) was a crucial milestone 1) The Suez Canal opened in 1869, was a key strategy point on the route to India 2) A “temporary” British occupation in 1882 3) British occupation also took place in West Africa (Nigeria, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, and Gambia), East Africa (Present day Somalia, Uganda and Kenya) and Zanzibar 4) British leaders envisioned control from the “Cape to Cairo” 5) Sudan, south of Egypt was a strategic territory  France, Britain, Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Portugal C. South Africa had long been a strategic way station en route to India.  1) The British took the Cape of Good Hope in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. 2) When diamonds and gold were discovered in the area (1867 and 1886), British forces pressed northward against the Boers, descendants of Dutch settlers. 3) British leaders grew to fear of German involvement. 4) The Boer War (1899-1902). D. France scrambled to acquire areas in Africa to compete with the British. 1) The French seized Tunisia in 1881. 2) Bismarck encouraged French adventures as a way of diverting tension from central Europe. 3) French colonialists sought control of Morocco, seized Madagascar, and fused West Africa in 1895 out of earlier French territories (Senegal, Mauritania, Niger, Dahomey, Upper Volta, the Ivory Coast, French Guinea, and French Sudan). 4) French colonialists envisioned linking their eastern and western colonies. E. Portugal expanded earlier outposts-Portuguese Guinea, Angola, and Mozambique-into colonies. F. Spain held outposts in West Africa and set up a protectorate over Spanish Morocco. G. German Imperialism was sporadic. 1) Reversing course in 1884, Bismarck claimed four areas: German Southwest Africa (Namibia), Cameroon, Togoland (Togo) in the west in 1884; and German East Africa (Burundi, Rwanda, and Tanzania) in 1885. H. A key event in the era of High Imperialism was the Berlin Conference (1884– 1885). 1) The conference was sponsored by France and Germany. 2) Representatives from 14 countries attended; however, none from the affected African peoples attended. 3) The conference set ground rules for control, establishing the criterion of effective occupation.  4) It established free trade in the Congo and free traffic on the Niger and Congo rivers. I. The conference validated the Congo Free State set up under King Leopold II of Belgium in the 1870s. 1) He presided over it personally from 1885 to 1908. 2) The symbol of colonial exploitation and cruelty. 3) International outrage mobilized by international societies led the Congo to be taken over by Belgium. J. Italy. 1) Upset at the French occupation of Tunis, Italy sought for compensation : Italian Somaliland (1889) and Eritrea (1890). 2) Attempt to occupy Ethiopia, Italy was defeated at Adowa in 1896. IV. Asia and the Pacific A. Russia and Britain clashed in “The Great Game” (a phrase popularized by Rudyard Kipling) in central Asia over Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet. 1) Russia continued its expansion, now covering a seventh of the world’s landmass. 2) This included the Trans-Siberian railroad, planned in 1891. 3) With the Russian annexation of Turkestan in 1864 after wars in Caucasus from 1830 to 1859 and further expansion, Britain feared a Russian approach on India. 4) A crisis in Afghanistan in 1885 led Russia to shift its attention to Persia. B. The United States. 1) In 1895, the United States and Britain almost clashed over the borders of Venezuela and British Guiana, but agreed to arbitration. 2) The United States began building a formidable naval force, and the Panama Canal opened in 1914. 3) The Spanish-American War broke out in April 1898. 4) The United States took the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam, and also annexed Hawaii in 1898. C. From time to time, colonial powers could also cooperate. 1) After competing in the region over Indochina and Burma, in 1896 Britain and France agreed to leave Siam (present-day Thailand) neutral. 2) During the Chinese nationalist Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901, the Boxers attacked embassies in Beijing. 3) An expeditionary force including British, French, Germans, Russians, Japanese, and Americans quelled the rebels.  LECTURE 12 13 TH JANUARY 2025UNITED STATES. The British Empire A. Britain ruled over the largest empire the world had ever seen. By 1913, it included 458 million subjects and a quarter of the world’s population and land mass. B. “The British Century.” 1. Greenwich Mean Time became the standard for time measurement. 2. The global reach of English (today the second most-spoken language after Mandarin) begins here.  C. British foreign policy asserted a Pax Britannica emphasizing Britain’s might and commercial interests. WORLD OF 1900 General situation A. The end of Bismarck’s system. 1. France sought allies for security against Germany, aligning with Russia in 1894. 2. Germany continued its economic and military (revisionist power). 3. Great Britain starts to seek allies. 4. Germany and Britain failed to become allies. Great Britain settled differences with France and Russia. B. The state system became increasingly rigid. C. Japan’s rise to power and success in a war against Russia. Growing instability and rising tensions  LECTURE 13 20 TH JANUARY 2025  The outbreak of the war (World War I) In 1914, a terrorist act in the Balkans (assassination at Sarajevo Archduke Franz Ferdinand, June 28) triggered a diplomatic crisis that unfolded over six weeks, leading to World War I. 1 The July Crisis of 1914. Austria-Hungary consulted with its ally, Germany, and on July 5–6, 1914, received a “blank check” to act against Serbia with German support. Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum to Serbia on July 23, 1914. The ultimatum was designed to be unacceptable. On July 25, Serbia accepted most of the 2 ultimatum and mobilized its army. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. On July 30, Russia started full mobilization. On July 31, Germany sent Russia an ultimatum to stop mobilizing or face war, demanded French neutrality, and declared „a state of the danger of war”. When the German ultimatum expired on August 1, Germany declared war on 3 Russia. France started mobilization. The key German war plan was the 1905 Schlieffen Plan (war on two fronts by attacking into France through neutral Belgium) 4 On August 2, Germany delivered an ultimatum to Belgium to allow entrance to its troops. On August 3, Belgium rejected the ultimatum, and Germany declared war on France while invading Belgium. 5 On August 3, Great Britain sent an ultimatum to Germany. The deadline expired at midnight on August 4, and Britain entered the war. On August 5, Austro-Hungary declared war on Russia; on 6 August 10, France, on August 12, Great Britain declared war on Austro-Hungary.  The Paris Settlement: Treaty of Versailles 1919 A. Treaties with five defeated powers (Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey) and creation of a new international order. B. Growing differences between victorious powers and creation of new states. C. A new American role (president Woodrow Wilson and his personal diplomacy). 1. A vision of a new international politics and rejection of the balance of power. D. Special role of the Big Five (France, Great Britain, the United States, Italy, and Japan), but practically the dominant role of the Big Three (France, Great Britain, and the United States). E. The defeated powers were excluded. F. Principles of the Settlement 1. Wilson’s Fourteen Points were the guidelines of the peace but increasingly were sidelined. 2. In practice, national self-determination and security came into conflict.  The Terms of the Treaties A. The Treaty of Versailles with Germany imposed terms to contain a renewed German threat. 1). Germany lost its colonies, 13 percent of its population, and 10 percent of its territory (to Belgium, France, Denmark, and Poland). 2) The so-called “Polish Corridor” split off Germany’s eastern part, and Danzig was made a free city. 3) The Saar region was temporarily occupied. 4) Germany was disarmed and left without a draft, and with only a small army. 5) France sought to split off the Rhineland as a buffer, but in April 1919, the United States and Britain offered instead a guarantee of support against German aggression, along with a demilitarized Rhineland. 6) Reparations: the final bill ($32 billion) was only decided by May 1921. 7) Article 231, the “War Guilt Clause”. B. Other treaties: 1) The Treaty of St. Germain with Austria (September 10, 1919), banned a union with Germany. 2) The Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria (November 27, 1919) gave territory to Greece. 3) The Treaty of Trianon with Hungary (June 4, 1920) gave territories to Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Romania. 4) The Treaty of Sèvres with the Ottoman Empire (August 10, 1920) dismembered the realm but was not ratified. I. The League of Nations A. The League of Nations Covenant was written into the peace treaties. The league introduced the concept of collective security. B. The League and European Imperialism. 1. The mandate system was established (to prepare for independence). 2. The Middle East was divided up between France and Great Britain as mandates. II. The New Map of Europe A. With the collapse of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires, a group of new states appeared in Central and Eastern Europe. 1) Finland, the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland. 2) Defeated and reduced states (Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Russia) were revisionist, promising instability. B. The role of France and Britain. C. Creation of Soviet Russia 1) In the Russian Civil War (1917–1923) the Bolsheviks defeated the Whites and foreign intervention (British, French, American, and Japanese forces). 2) Incorporating reconquered former imperial areas (Ukraine, Belarus, Caucasus), the Soviet Union or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) was established in December 1922.