HEMoW Resit Notes PDF

HISTORY OF EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD SINCE 1750 Resit Notes Cold War: A Bipolar World Why the term Cold War? It’s called the Cold War because the US and USSR never directly fought a “hot” war but instead engaged in intense rivalry through proxy wars, espi...

HISTORY OF EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD SINCE 1750 Resit Notes Cold War: A Bipolar World Why the term Cold War? It’s called the Cold War because the US and USSR never directly fought a “hot” war but instead engaged in intense rivalry through proxy wars, espionage, and ideological competition. What are the historiographical views on the origins of the Cold War? Historians debate this a lot: Traditionalists blame the USSR's expansionist policies. Revisionists argue the US’s push for global capitalism triggered it. Post-revisionists think it was a mix of security concerns and misjudgments on both sides. What are the underlying theoretical visions of international relations and the system of states behind this debate? Realism: Focuses on the power struggle and survival in a competitive international system. Liberalism: Emphasizes the clash of ideologies like democracy vs. communism. Constructivism: Examines how identity and history shaped Cold War narratives. Diplomatic Conferences and Spheres of Influence What events and foreign policy colored the start of the Cold War? Key events include the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences. These meetings divided Europe into "spheres of influence" with the USSR controlling the East and the West focusing on rebuilding democracy. Tensions over Germany and reparations set the stage for the Cold War. The Nuclear Age What is the significance of the development of nuclear weapons for the dynamics of the Cold War and strategic thinking in international relations? Nuclear weapons changed everything. They created the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)—a terrifying balance where neither side could risk starting a war because both would be annihilated. The Cuban Crisis Under what circumstances did the Cuban crisis take place? In 1962, the USSR placed nuclear missiles in Cuba to counter US missiles in Turkey. This followed the US’s failed Bay of Pigs invasion, which made Cuba seek Soviet support. What was the significance of the Cuban crisis? It was the closest the world came to nuclear war. After intense negotiations, the US and USSR agreed to remove their missiles, leading to détente and better communication (like the hotline between leaders). Détente What is détente in the international relations of the Cold War? Détente was a period of eased tensions between the US and USSR in the 1970s, focusing on cooperation and arms control, like the SALT I treaty. How did relations between the superpowers and other powers in the international system of states change during this period? The US and USSR moved toward strategic agreements, but competition didn’t disappear. Other powers, like China and non-aligned nations, gained more influence. What underlying visions of international relations underlie these changes? Realists saw détente as a way to manage power conflicts, while liberals viewed it as a step toward global peace. The Vietnam War What is the background to the Vietnam War? Vietnam fought for independence from France. Afterward, it became a Cold War battleground between communist North Vietnam (backed by the USSR/China) and capitalist South Vietnam (supported by the US). How did it fit into this phase of the Cold War? It was a classic proxy war, with the US intervening to stop the spread of communism under the Domino Theory. What was the character of the Vietnam War? It was brutal and unconventional, with guerrilla warfare, heavy civilian casualties, and environmental destruction (e.g., Agent Orange). What was the significance of the Vietnam War for the position and reputation of the US? It was a disaster for the US. It lost credibility worldwide, deepened domestic divisions, and made Americans skeptical about foreign interventions. The 'Second Cold War' Under what circumstances did the relationship between the USSR and the US deteriorate after the Vietnam War? The USSR invaded Afghanistan (1979), leading to renewed US hostility. Reagan’s administration also ramped up military spending and rhetoric against the "evil empire." How can these dynamics be compared with the dynamics between the USSR and the US in the first phase of the Cold War? The first phase was about establishing dominance and ideology, while the second phase was more militarized, with a greater focus on arms races and strategic advantage. Behind the Iron Curtain How strong was the grip of the USSR on its satellite states in Eastern Europe? It was strong but not unshakable. The USSR used military interventions and puppet governments to maintain control. What uprisings were behind the Iron Curtain in the period 1945-1989? Key uprisings include Hungary (1956), Prague Spring (1968), and Poland’s Solidarity movement (1980s). How did the USSR and the local communist parties react to these uprisings? The USSR often responded with force (e.g., sending tanks to Hungary and Czechoslovakia) or economic and political pressure. The Fall of the Wall and the End of the Cold War How did the fall of the Berlin Wall come about? Protests, economic collapse, and Gorbachev’s reforms (e.g., less intervention in satellite states) led to East Germany opening its borders in 1989. How did the Iron Curtain and communism come to an end in Europe? Eastern European countries transitioned to democracy, and the USSR dissolved in 1991 due to internal economic and political crises. What are the historiographical visions of the end of the Cold War? Some credit Western pressure (e.g., Reagan’s policies), while others highlight Soviet weaknesses or the role of grassroots movements. History and Political Science How are history and political science related to each other? History provides the context of past events and patterns, while political science studies systems and behaviors to understand current and future dynamics. They’re like two sides of the same coin. Enlightenment as a Historical Concept What is a concept? A concept is an idea used to classify, explain, or frame phenomena, like “Enlightenment” framing a period of intellectual and societal change. Could you explain Enlightenment as a historical concept? The Enlightenment was an 18th-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, and individual rights. It’s seen as a pivot point for modern democracy and secular governance. The Enlightenment as Intellectual and Societal Phenomenon What were the circumstances at the time of the rise of the enlightened way of thinking? Rising literacy, advances in science (Newton), and dissatisfaction with feudalism and the church paved the way for Enlightenment thinking. How was this expedited/obstructed? Expedited by printing presses and salons where ideas spread quickly, but obstructed by censorship and entrenched religious and monarchical powers. Which themes were historically at the center of the discussions between Enlightenment thinkers? Key themes included liberty, equality, skepticism of authority, and progress through reason. Natural Law and Enlightened Political Ideas What is Natural Law? Natural Law is the idea that universal principles (like justice and human rights) are inherent and not dependent on governments or customs. What does a legitimate political society look like? For Enlightenment thinkers, it’s one where laws align with natural rights, ensuring freedom, equality, and rational governance. Enlightened Despotism How did rulers try to integrate the Enlightenment in the way they exercised power? Rulers like Frederick the Great and Catherine the Great implemented reforms like legal codification and religious tolerance while maintaining centralized control. What were the results of this reformative movement in relation to the monarchical system? It modernized governance but preserved monarchies, as reforms were often limited to maintaining power rather than empowering citizens fully. Romanticism What are the key principles of Romanticism as a historical concept? Romanticism emphasized emotion, nature, and individuality, often as a reaction to Enlightenment rationality. How are the Enlightenment and Romanticism related to each other? Romanticism emerged as a counter-movement to the Enlightenment, rejecting reason’s dominance and celebrating the irrational and spiritual. The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain Which factors contributed to the start of the Industrial Revolution? Abundant coal and iron, an innovative culture, financial institutions, and a mobile workforce. Demographic Transition What were the consequences of the demographic transition for the modernization of societies? Population growth fueled urbanization and labor forces, driving industrial expansion and shifting family dynamics. The Rise of Urbanization and Industrial Labor What were the most important socioeconomic consequences of the start of the Industrial Revolution, and how are these related? Industrialization created wealth but widened inequality, with poor working conditions prompting labor movements and social reforms. What is an industrial society? A society where production is mechanized, and most people live and work in urban areas. Crisis of the Ancien Régime in France What were the structural weaknesses of the existing political societal system in France at the dawn of the French Revolution? Massive debt, inequality between the estates, and an out-of-touch monarchy. The Mother of All Revolutions What was the course of the French Revolution? It started with the Estates-General (1789), escalated with the Reign of Terror (1793–94), and ended with Napoleon's rise (1799). Who were the most important actors and moments? Key actors: Louis XVI, Robespierre, and Napoleon. Key moments: Storming of the Bastille, Reign of Terror, and Napoleonic Wars. Which political and societal changes were the result of the French Revolution? It abolished feudal privileges, promoted individual rights, and inspired revolutions globally. The Dual Revolution What is the relationship between the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution? Both reshaped societies by challenging old systems—politically through revolution, economically through industrialization. What is the meaning of the phrase ‘Dual Revolution’? It describes the simultaneous economic (Industrial) and political (French) revolutions and their combined effects on society. The Napoleonic Code What were the characteristics of Napoleon’s type of leadership? He was authoritarian, pragmatic, and charismatic, balancing reforms with centralized control. What was the Code Napoleon substantially? It was a unified legal system emphasizing equality before the law, property rights, and secular governance. What is the relationship between Napoleon’s policy and the Enlightenment? His policies reflected Enlightenment ideals like legal equality and meritocracy but also contradicted them with authoritarian rule. The Transnational Consequences of the Revolution What are transnational processes? Movements or ideas that cross national borders, influencing multiple societies. How and to what extent were Enlightenment ideas, practices, and policies spread across Europe between 1789 and 1815? French armies spread Enlightenment principles (e.g., legal reforms), but resistance in places like Spain limited their impact. The Congress of Vienna What were the leading principles? Balance of power, restoration of monarchies, and prevention of future revolutions. What were the national and international consequences? Nationally, monarchies were restored. Internationally, Europe enjoyed relative peace until WWI. The Rise of Modern Political Ideologies What are modern ideologies, and why did they flourish in this historical context? Ideologies like liberalism and socialism emerged as responses to the upheavals of the French and Industrial Revolutions, offering visions of a better society. What are the main characteristics of early conservatism, capitalism, liberalism, and socialism? Conservatism: Preserve tradition and monarchy. Capitalism: Free markets and private property. Liberalism: Individual rights and limited government. Socialism: Equality and public ownership. Total War What is total war? A war involving entire societies rather than just armies. It includes mobilization of all resources— economic, industrial, and civilian—and often blurs the line between combatants and civilians. Changes in Warfare (1648–1815) What were important changes in the field of warfare and international relations during this period? The Peace of Westphalia (1648) formalized state sovereignty, marking the end of religious wars. Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) introduced conscription and mass armies, with wars fought for national goals rather than monarchs. The Concert of Europe What was the Concert of Europe? An informal agreement among European powers (1815–1914) to maintain balance and avoid major wars through diplomacy. Under what conditions could it function? It worked as long as major powers respected the balance of power and used diplomacy rather than aggression. What events contributed to its erosion? The rise of nationalism, German unification, and colonial rivalries destabilized the system, leading to WWI. Bismarck’s System What was Bismarck's system? A diplomatic strategy designed to isolate France and maintain peace in Europe by forming alliances like the Three Emperors' League (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia). What was the underlying vision? Bismarck aimed for a balance of power that would secure Germany’s position in Europe without provoking conflicts. What were the unintended consequences? After Bismarck's dismissal, Germany’s aggressive policies led to tensions that eventually caused WWI. Modern Mass Society and National Industry How did modernization translate into changing public opinion and national interests? Mass literacy, urbanization, and industrialization fostered national identity and public engagement in politics, which increased demands on governments. What was the effect on political elites? Political elites had to adapt to rising public demands and the growing influence of labor unions and nationalist movements. International Animosity How did these developments contribute to growing international animosity? Economic competition, nationalism, and colonial rivalries heightened tensions, especially between major powers like Britain, Germany, and France. The Great War What was the essence of WWI as a total war? WWI mobilized entire nations, with industries producing war materials and civilians contributing to the war effort through labor and rationing. What was the military strategic course? It began with rapid offensives (Schlieffen Plan) but devolved into trench warfare, with high casualties and minimal territorial gains. The Paris Peace Conference Under what circumstances was the Peace of Versailles concluded? The Allies dictated terms after Germany's defeat in 1918, emphasizing punishment over reconciliation. What were the provisions? Germany was disarmed, forced to pay reparations, and accepted blame for the war. What were the underlying ideas on international relations? The treaty reflected liberal ideals (e.g., Wilson’s League of Nations) but also realist goals like weakening Germany. How did the different actors interpret this peace? France sought security, Britain wanted balance, and Germany viewed it as humiliating, sowing resentment. Historiographic Debate: The Weimar Republic What are the main historical trends surrounding the debate on its downfall? Stillborn thesis: Claims it was doomed from the start due to structural weaknesses. Suicide thesis: Argues poor leadership and extremist parties undermined democracy. Murder thesis: Blames external factors like the Treaty of Versailles. What theoretical visions of democracy are contained in these trends? They examine resilience in democratic systems, highlighting the importance of institutions, leadership, and external pressures. Fascism in Italy How did Italian fascism come about? Post-WWI economic struggles, social unrest, and fears of communism paved the way for Mussolini's rise. What were the characteristics of fascist ideology? It emphasized nationalism, militarism, anti-communism, and the glorification of the state over the individual. To what extent was it totalitarian? Mussolini’s regime controlled media and suppressed opposition, but it lacked the pervasive control seen in Nazi Germany or Stalinist USSR. Foundations of the Third Reich How was the totalitarian Nazi state consolidated? Through propaganda, suppression of opposition, and control over all aspects of life (e.g., education, culture, and media). To what extent was resistance possible? Resistance existed but was limited and often crushed brutally, such as the White Rose movement or individual acts of defiance. Dutch Politics and Pillarization What did the Dutch party landscape look like during the interwar period? It was divided into pillars based on religion and ideology (e.g., Catholic, Protestant, socialist). What power dynamics were visible during this period? Coalition politics dominated, with each pillar advocating for its group's interests. The Civil Rights Movement in the US How did legalized segregation end? The Civil Rights Movement used legal challenges, protests, and activism to dismantle segregation (e.g., Brown v. Board of Education, 1954, and the Civil Rights Act, 1964). What was the role of social movements and political ideas? Non-violent protests led by figures like Martin Luther King Jr. highlighted injustice and pressured politicians to act. The Protest Generation What was the protest generation? Young people in the 1960s–70s who challenged traditional norms, advocating for civil rights, feminism, and opposition to the Vietnam War. Second Feminist Wave What are the differences between the First and Second Feminist Waves? The First Wave focused on suffrage and legal rights; the Second Wave addressed workplace inequality, reproductive rights, and societal roles. What was the relationship with other social movements? It intersected with the civil rights and anti-war movements, amplifying calls for systemic change. Changing Foundations of Modern Western Culture What fundamental changes occurred post-war? Mass media, consumerism, and shifts in gender roles transformed Western societies, driven by modernization and globalization. Foreign Policy of the Nazis and Appeasement What were Nazi foreign policy goals? Reversing Versailles, expanding eastward (Lebensraum), and uniting all Germans under one Reich. How was this policy implemented? Through rearmament, alliances like the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, and invasions (e.g., Poland, 1939). How did major powers react? They initially pursued appeasement, allowing Nazi aggression until war became unavoidable. Decolonization What were the structural causes of decolonization? WWII weakened European powers, and colonies demanded independence, fueled by nationalist movements and Cold War dynamics. What is the relationship with the Cold War? Both the US and USSR supported decolonization to expand their ideological influence. The Rise and Fall of a New World Order What was the New World Order proclaimed by the US after 1989? It referred to a world shaped by US dominance, liberal democracy, and global capitalism after the Cold War. To what extent can we speak of a new world order? While the US played a dominant role, regional conflicts, rising powers, and globalization complicated the vision of a unified order. The Dutch Political Landscape: Pillarization Definition of Pillarization: Dutch society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was divided into distinct "pillars" based on religion or ideology. These pillars (Catholic, Protestant, Socialist, and Liberal) were social ecosystems, each with its own newspapers, schools, trade unions, and political parties. Functionality: Each group lived somewhat separately but cooperated politically through coalition  governments. This system helped maintain social harmony by giving each pillar its own sphere of influence while ensuring representation at the national level. Decline of Pillarization: By the 1960s and 1970s, societal secularization and modernization eroded these divisions. The younger generation sought a more individualistic and less segmented approach to politics and society. Thorbecke and the Constitution of 1848 Key Reforms by Thorbecke: Johan Rudolph Thorbecke, a liberal statesman, was instrumental in drafting the Dutch Constitution of 1848. It introduced: o Parliamentary sovereignty: Ministers became accountable to Parliament rather than the king. o Civil liberties: Freedom of speech, religion, and assembly were guaranteed. o Electoral reforms: Although suffrage was limited to wealthier men, it set the groundwork for gradual democratization. Impact: This was a significant step toward modern liberal democracy in the Netherlands and influenced other European constitutional movements during the revolutionary wave of 1848. The Fall of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1830) Background: The Kingdom of the Netherlands, formed in 1815, included present-day Belgium and Luxembourg. The union aimed to create a strong buffer state after the Napoleonic Wars. Division: Cultural, religious, and economic differences between the Dutch (primarily Protestant and commercial) and the Belgians (mostly Catholic and industrial) led to tensions. The Belgian Revolution in 1830 resulted in Belgium's independence, officially recognized in 1839. Dutch Neutrality and Colonial Politics Neutrality in European Conflicts: During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Netherlands maintained a policy of neutrality in European wars. This strategy allowed the country to focus on trade and avoid costly military engagements. Colonial Exploitation in the East Indies: The Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia) were a critical part of the Dutch  economy. The Cultivation System (1830–1870) forced Javanese farmers to grow cash crops like sugar and coffee for export, enriching the Dutch state while impoverishing local communities. Ethical Policy: By the late 19th century, criticism of colonial exploitation led to the Ethical Policy, which aimed to improve education and infrastructure in the colonies. However, this policy often reinforced existing inequalities. World War II and Its Aftermath German Occupation (1940–1945): The Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany, and Dutch resistance grew over time. The Holocaust had a devastating impact, particularly on the Jewish population, with figures like Anne Frank symbolizing the horrors of Nazi persecution. Reconstruction and the Welfare State: After the war, the Netherlands rebuilt its economy with the help of the Marshall Plan. The welfare state expanded in the 1950s and 1960s, providing healthcare, housing, and education. The Dutch Decolonization Process The Dutch East Indies: Indonesia’s fight for independence began during WWII when Japan ousted the Dutch from the archipelago. After the war, nationalist movements, led by Sukarno, clashed with the Dutch. Indonesia gained independence in 1949 after a bloody conflict. Surinam and the Caribbean: Suriname and the Dutch Caribbean islands remained under Dutch control until Suriname gained independence in 1975. The Caribbean territories remain part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands today, though they have varying degrees of autonomy. Post-War Political Culture: Consensus and Polarization Consensus Politics: After WWII, the Dutch political culture emphasized consensus-building. Coalition governments, typically involving multiple parties, worked together to ensure stability and representation. Polarization in the 1960s–70s: Rising social movements (e.g., second-wave feminism, environmentalism, and anti- nuclear activism) challenged the consensus model. New political parties, such as D66, emerged, reflecting these societal changes. Modern Dutch Politics Shift to Individualism: By the late 20th century, Dutch politics moved away from pillarization toward a more individualistic and fragmented system. Populism: Recent decades have seen the rise of populist movements, focusing on immigration, nationalism, and Euroskepticism. Politicians like Geert Wilders exemplify this trend.