HDF 4317 Exam 2 Study Guide Fall 24 PDF

Exam 2 Study Guide Chapter 6 - **Habituation: A simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to a repeated or continued stimulation.** - **Indicates that learning has taken place** - **Bilingual children show it faster** - **Example: Infant loses interest...

Exam 2 Study Guide Chapter 6 - **Habituation: A simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to a repeated or continued stimulation.** - **Indicates that learning has taken place** - **Bilingual children show it faster** - **Example: Infant loses interest in rattle** - **Operant conditioning versus classical conditioning** **Classical conditioning: Person learns to make a reflex or involuntary response that originally did not provoke the response.** - **Infant anticipates an event before it happens by forming association between stimuli** **Operant Conditioning: Learner operates, or acts, on the environment.** - **Infant learns to make a certain response to an environmental stimulus to produce a certain response.** - **Reinforcements increase behaviors** - **Punishments decrease behaviors** - **Central properties of Piaget's stage theory** **Children are "Little Scientists" they actively construct their own knowledge.** - **Generating hypothesis** - **Performing experiments** - **Drawing conclusions based on observation** - **Children learn many important lessons on their own.** - **Intrinsically motivated to learn** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Sensorimotor Stage** | **Infant explores the world | | | through motor and sensory | | **0-2 years** | processes.** | | | | | | - **Object permanence** | | | | | | - **Separation anxiety** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Preoperational Stage** | **Child uses symbols to represent | | | objects** | | **2-6 years** | | | | - **No logical reasoning** | | | | | | - **Ability to pretend** | | | | | | - **Egocentric** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Concrete Operational** | **Child thinks logically about | | | cocreate objects** | | **7-12 years** | | | | - **Add & subtract** | | **Formal Operational** | | | | - **Understand conversation** | | **12- Adult** | | | | - **Adolescent/ Adult** | | | | | | - **Reason abstractedly think | | | in hypothetical term** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Theory Strengths:** - **Provides strong overview of children's thinking at different points in development** - **Countless observations** - **Surveys a remarkably broad spectrum of developments** **Theory Criticisms:** - **Cognitive development is more social.** - **Cannot happen outside socio-cultural contexts** - **Not universal because of cultural contexts** - **Play scaffolded by parents or other more experienced members** - **Schemas, assimilation, and accommodation** **Schemas** **Mental representations that help children classify things & make predictions** ------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Assimilation** **Children assimilate the new thing into their current schema** **Accommodation** **Children Adjust current schemas or create new ones** - **Substages of the sensorimotor stage (page 120 in textbook)** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Substage 1: Reflexes** | **Practice Reflexes** | | | | | **Birth- 1 month** | - **Infants modify and extent | | | scheme for reflexes,** | | | | | | - **Do not coordinate | | | information from their | | | senses** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Substage 2: Primary Circular | **Purposely repeat a pleasurable | | Reactions** | bodily sensation first achieved | | | by chance.** | | **1-4 months** | | | | - **Focus on the body** | | | | | | - **Ability to coordinate | | | different kinds of sensory | | | information** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Substage 3: Secondary Circular | **Manipulating objects & learning | | Reactions** | about their properties.** | | | | | **4-8 months** | - **Intentionally repeat | | | actions** | | | | | | - **Rewards beyond the infant's | | | own body** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Substage 4: Coordination of | **Build upon birth schemes** | | Secondary Schemes** | | | | - **Behavior is more | | | intentional & purposeful** | | | | | | - **Anticipate events** | | | | | | - **Generalize from past | | | experiences to solve new | | | problems** | | | | | | - **Modify & coordinate | | | previous schemes to find what | | | works.** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Substage 5: Tertiary Circular | **Experiment to see what will | | Reactions** | happen** | | | | | **12-18 months** | - **Vary behavior** | | | | | | - **Find best way to attain a | | | goal** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Substage 6: Mental | **Ability to mentally represent | | Combinations** | objects & actions in memory** | | | | | **18 months-2 years** | - **Large use of symbols** | | | | | | - **Can pretend | | | sophisticatedly** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - **Object permanence** **An infant's ability to understand that an object continues to exist even if it's out of sight.** - **8 months of age typically marks the beginning of object permanence.** - **A-not B error: The tendency to reach for object where they have been found before (A) rather than where they were last hidden (B).** - **Central properties of Vygotsky's socio-contextual theory** 1. **Social interaction plays a fundamental role in cognitive development.** 2. **Growth in cognitive development occurs when a child is in zone of proximal development with aid of an adult or peer.** **Theory Strengths:** - **Recognizes importance of adults around children.** - **Learning occurs through interaction** - **Skills learned are determined by culture** **Theory Limitations:** - **Emotional aspects of development largely ignored** - **Zone of proximal development** **Distance between the actual development level based on independent problem solving & the level of potential development as determined by problem solving under guidance of adults or more skilled peers.** - **Joint attention** **When two people share a focus on an object.** - **Develops between 6 & 18 months of age** - **Key step in language development** - **Scaffolding** **Sociocultural Theory** - **Skilled adult or older child provides support that allows the child to think at a higher level than they could manage on their own.** - **Sensitive & critical period hypothesis for language development** **Language Development** - **The sensitive period refers to the phase from birth to six years when a child\'s brain is exceptionally capable of learning language due to its high plasticity, as it forms an abundance of neural connections that await experiences to strengthen and refine them.** - **How children learn new words** - **Assume new label refers to new object** - **Reference the association of a word & meaning** - **Assume label refers to entire object, not just a part of the object.** - **Fast mapping: children are able to make connections between words & objects after limited exposure.** - **Overgeneralization** - **When children overextend word meanings** - **Using words in too broad of a category** **Example: Calling all gray-haired men grandpa.** - **Telegraphic speech** - **18-24 months** - **Short sentences that follow syntax rules (not random)** **Example: No Juice** **Ball mine** - **Overregularization** - **Intelligent errors** - **When children inappropriately apply a syntactical rule** - **Illustrates children's growing knowledge of syntax** **Example: "I drawed that"** **Chapter 7** - **Caregiver-child attachment** **FUNCTION:** - **Survival** - **Emotional well-being** - **Regulate arousal & affect** **Attachment figures provide:** - [Secure base] **from which the child can explore the world** - **Infants are more likely to explore when their attachment figure(s) are nearby** - **Think: Harlow's monkey** - [Safe haven] **to retreat to for comfort and protection in times of distress** **Infants return/call to their attachment figure(s) when frightened** - **New person** - **New situation** - **Loud noises** - **Bright light** - **Shift in equilibrium** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Pre-Attachment** | - **Indiscriminate** | | | | | **Birth-6 weeks** | - **Innate attachment cues: | | | crying to summon caregivers, | | | non-nutritive sucking** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Attachment in the making** | - **Begins to recognize who is | | | responding to cues** | | **6 weeks- to 6-8 months** | | | | - **Direct cues towards | | | familiar individuals** | | | | | | - **Developing expectations of | | | how caregiver will respond to | | | their needs.** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Clear Cut Attachment** | **Preferred figures** | | | | | **6/8 months to 3 years** | - **Cues are now directed** | | | | | | - **Crying** | | | | | | - **Calling** | | | | | | - **Babbling** | | | | | | - **Locomotion** | | | | | | - **Hierarchy of figures | | | develops** | | | | | | - **Separation and stranger | | | anxiety** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - **Separation anxiety** **Distress from a child when a familiar caregiver leaves** - **Strange Situation** - **secure attachment** - **insecure/resistant attachment** - **insecure/avoidant attachment** - **disorganized/disoriented attachment** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Secure Attachment** | - **Sensitive & responsive to | | | needs.** | | | | | | - **Infants seek proximity with | | | caregiver when distressed** | | | | | | - **Able to be soothed by | | | caregivers** | | | | | | - **Prefer parents to | | | strangers** | +===================================+===================================+ | **insecure/resistant attachment** | - **Caregivers likely to be | | | inconsistently available & | | | unreliable** | | | | | | - **Children anxious & | | | overwhelmed by caregiving** | | | | | | - **Maximize attachment | | | behaviors** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Insecure/avoidant attachment** | - **Caregivers likely | | | indifferent, emotionally | | | unavailable, & rejecting bids | | | of comfort** | | | | | | - **Children act physically & | | | emotionally independent from | | | caregivers** | | | | | | - **Minimize attachment | | | behaviors** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **disorganized/disoriented | - **Caregivers are | | attachment** | unpredictable, frightening, | | | or helpless** | | | | | | - **No cohesive attachment | | | strategy** | | | | | | - **Will eventually revert to | | | secondary attachment | | | strategy** | | | | | | - **Caregivers not always | | | abusive, may be working | | | through own trauma** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - **Erikson's first 2 stages of psychosocial development** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Trust vs. Mistrust** | ** ** | | | | | **Infancy (1yr)** | - **The development of trust | | | requires warm, nurturing, | | | caregiving. Positive outcome | | | in children is a feeling of | | | comfort & minimal fear.** | | | | | | - **Mistrust develops when | | | treated negatively or | | | ignored.** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt** | - **This emerging autonomy is | | | why toddlers begin to | | **Toddlerhood** | substitute their own judgment | | | for their caregivers** | | | | | | - **Own strong will, wishes to | | | be understood, independent, | | | powerful.** | | | | | | - **Shame & doubt prevent them | | | from going overboard** | | | | | | - **Adults need to set | | | appropriate limits** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Chapter 8** - **Common sleep problems in early childhood** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Sleepwalking & Sleep talking** | - **Walking & sometimes | | | performing other functions | | | while asleep** | | | | | | - **Occur in slow wave sleep** | | | | | | - **Common under sleep | | | deprivation, fevers, | | | medications, or noise** | | | | | | - **Unresponsive to external | | | stimulation & confused** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Nightmares** | - **Common during early | | | childhood** | | | | | | - **Caused by staying up to | | | late, eating a heavy meal | | | close to bedtime, or over | | | excitement** | | | | | | - **Related to difficult child | | | temperament & high overall | | | childhood anxiety** | | | | | | - **May signal excessive stress | | | and are correlated with | | | emotional, attentional, and | | | conduct problems** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Bed-Wetting** | - **Enuresis refers to repeated | | | urination in clothing or in | | | bed** | | | | | | - **It is more common in boys** | | | | | | - **The discovery of the | | | approximate site of a gene | | | linked to enuresis points to | | | heredity as a major factor** | | | | | | - **Children and their parents | | | need to be reassured that | | | enuresis is common and not | | | serious. Professional help is | | | not needed unless children | | | themselves are distressed** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - **Gross motor skills** **Physical Skills that involve the large muscles** - **Great advances ages 3-6** - **Table 8.2---gross motor skills acquired in early childhood** - **Fine motor skills** **physical skills that involve the small muscles and eye--hand coordination.** - **show a preference for using either the right or left hand** - **Aided by advances in perception** **Gradual refinement in abilities** - **Children's abilities do not happen overnight. It is the gradual occurrence of small steps involved in a larger motor task and refinement to achieve that larger motor task.** - **Rough-and-tumble play** **Preschoolers of different cultures use motor abilities in different ways as they play** **Children of all cultures engage in roughhousing that, from the outside, looks aggressive. It is widely forbidden in many US schools and households out of concerns it will lead to real fighting.** - **About 10 percent of US schoolchildren's free play at school in the early grades consists of rough-and-tumble play, often accompanied by laughing and screaming.** - **Rough-and-tumble play that is monitored by adults for safety can contribute to greater competence in peer interactions.** - **Childhood obesity predictors and outcomes** **Susceptibility to weight gain is heritable, polygenic, & multifactorial** - **Temperament** - **Feelings of hunger** - **Environmental factors:** - **Increased screen time** - **Decreased gross motor play** - **Less or lower quality sleep** - **Availability of high-caloric foods** - **Using food as a motivator or bribe** - **Early life trauma** - **Children who are overweight commonly have medical problems, most notably diabetes, sleep apnea, and cardiovascular disease, or they may develop these at a younger age.** - **Overweight children tend to become obese adults at risk for hypertension (high blood pressure) and other problems.** - **Some of the most serious consequences of obesity in childhood include discrimination from both adults and children** - **Body size stigmatization begins in preschool** - **Increases risk of depression and anxiety disorders, low self-esteem, and body dissatisfaction** **Synaptic density at different ages** A diagram of a brain formation Description automatically generated with medium confidence **3 to 6 years** **most rapid brain growth occurs in the frontal areas that regulate planning and goal setting** ------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **4 years** **The density of synapses in the prefrontal cortex peaks** **6 years** **the brain has attained about 90% of its peak volume** **Chapter 9** - **Theory of mind** **Enables us to learn, solve problems, make decisions** **Becoming aware of our own thought processes, we can control or modify them** **Becoming aware of others' feelings and thinking, we can interact with them more effectively** ***Thinking about thinking*** - **Sensory memory** **lasts for only a second or less (a smell, a touch); children's sensory memories are equal to adults** - **Short-term/working memory** - **Working memory/short term memory retains information for 30 seconds or less unless it is rehearsed.** - **2 digits by age 2-3** - **5 digits by age 7** - **7 digits by age 12** - **Long-term memory** **relatively permanent storage that holds huge amounts of information for as long as a lifetime.** **Some retrieval methods are easier than others.** - **Generic memory** **produces a script, a general outline of a familiar, repeated event. It helps a child know what to expect and how to act** - **Episodic memory** **refers to awareness of having experienced a particular event that occurred at a specific time and place** - **Autobiographical memory** **refers to memories of distinctive experiences that form a person's life history** - **Executive functioning** - **make it possible for us to think before acting, to anticipate challenges, to resist temptations, and to stay focused.** **Core executive functions are:** - **Selective attention/inhibitory control** - **Working memory** - **Response inhibition (e.g., doing the opposite of Simon Says)** - **Cognitive flexibility (adapting to new changing circumstances)** - **How are executive functions applied throughout the life span?** - **Inhibiting tempting actions that can cause difficulties** - **Enhancing working memory through use of strategies such as repeating a phone number** - **Being cognitively flexible and taking another person's perspective in an argument (even if it is different)**