HCOMM-1400-1 Theories of Human Communication (10) PDF

Mind: The ability to use symbols with common social meanings. - developed through speaking with others Implications: the better/wider you develop those symbols system you think through everything - Can't emphathisis until your mind it develop Self: The ability to reflect on oneself from the perspective of others. - Hard to see what people say or do without - Med would say that a nascarist would not know how they come across because they dont know self - Me: reflecting on your self and using other peoples feedback ( self awareness) I : Not thinking about yourself, what ingerating just goin. Impulsive, spontaneous The importance of meaning for human behavior: Individuals act toward things based on the meanings those things have for them. Meaning is created in interaction and modified through interpretation. The importance of the self-concept: Self-concept is a central motive for behavior. ○ Individuals develop self-concepts through interactions with others. Self-concepts provide an important motive for behavior. ○ Developed the self-concept Differentiate yourself from others—----> motivation for behavior The relationship between the individual and society: People and groups are influenced by cultural and social processes. Social structure is worked out through social interaction. ○ Individuals are not just passive recipients of social norms, they are active in creating and recreating them. ○ The choose we have Chapter 3 What is Theory? Definition: A theory is a "formalized explanation" of how things work. It's a way of making sense of the world by explaining, understanding, predicting or creating social change. Theories involve concepts and relationships. Concepts: Concepts are key terms or ideas. They are the building blocks of theory and can be concrete or abstract. For example, "friendship" is a concept that can have different meanings in different contexts. Relationships: Theories specify the connections between concepts. These relationships can be linear, interactive, or even transactional. Level of Generality: Theories can vary in their level of generality, ranging from very broad ("grand") to very specific ("narrow"). Goals of Theory: Explanation: Theories provide reasons for why things happen. Understanding: Theories offer insights into the nature of phenomena. Prediction: Some theories aim to predict future outcomes. Social Change: Some theories are developed to promote social change by identifying inequities and offering solutions. Theory and Experience The relationship between theory and experience is complex. Theories are based on observations, but those observations are also shaped by existing theories. Theory and research should inform each other. Approaches to Knowing (Generating Knowledge) There are different approaches to generating knowledge and building theory, each with its own assumptions: Positivistic Approach: ○ Assumptions: This approach assumes that the world is objective, can be measured, and that there are universal laws that can be discovered. ○ Goals: The goal is to explain and predict. ○ Method and Task: Researchers using this approach typically use quantitative methods and begin with a theory and test it through research. ○ Theory to Research: This approach moves from a general theory to a specific application. Interpretive (or Hermeneutic) Approach: ○ Assumptions: This approach assumes that reality is socially constructed and that people's interpretations are important. ○ Goals: The goal is to understand meanings, experiences and perspectives. ○ Method and Task: Researchers using this approach often employ qualitative methods and develop theory from the research. ○ Research to Theory: This approach is inductive, moving from specific observations to broader theoretical ideas. Critical Approach: ○ Assumptions: This approach assumes that power structures shape social realities and that some groups are marginalized. ○ Goals: The goal is to critique the status quo and promote social justice. ○ This approach often involves examining existing power relations and inequalities. Questions About the World (Ontology, Epistemology, Axiology) - These are three key areas of inquiry in theory building: Ontology: The study of the nature of reality. Different approaches to knowing have different ontological assumptions. ○ Positivistic Ontology: Reality is objective and exists independently of the observer. ○ Interpretive Ontology: Reality is socially constructed, and there may be multiple realities. ○ Critical Ontology: Reality is shaped by power relations, and some groups have more influence in defining it. Epistemology: The study of how we know things. This also varies by approach. ○ Positivistic Epistemology: Knowledge is gained through observation and measurement. ○ Interpretive Epistemology: Knowledge is gained by understanding people's lived experiences. ○ Critical Epistemology: Knowledge is shaped by power, and some perspectives may be privileged over others. Axiology: The study of values. ○ Positivistic Axiology: Values should be kept separate from research to maintain objectivity. ○ Interpretive Axiology: Values influence the research process, and researchers should acknowledge their own values. ○ Critical Axiology: Research should be value-driven and aim for social change. Formed by money, power, “the man” Types of Theories Covering Law Approach: This approach uses general laws to explain phenomena. These laws are assumed to apply across situations. This is what happen in this situation Action and result Positivitic approach align Predictable All situations and people Rules Approach: This approach uses rules or norms to guide how people interact. ○ Influenced my community and people around you Systems Approach: This approach emphasizes the interconnectedness and interdependence of parts in a system. ○ Studying all parts ○ Interdependent larger system Ex: classroom: different people, new teacher, new class, new material ○ Key Concepts of Systems Approach: Wholeness, interdependence, hierarchy, boundaries, calibration, and equifinality. The Research Process Deductive Reasoning: Theorists often move from a general theory to a specific application. This involves - Using the premise - Facts - (postivitic) ○ Identifying a puzzling observation ○ Developing a hypothesis ○ Operationalizing concepts: Defining concepts in a measurable way ○ Creating a data collection procedure ○ Coding data-how frequently does something happen ○ and testing the hypothesis ○ Using quantitative or qualitative methods Inductive Reasoning: Moving from specific observations to generate new theories. ○ Creating preminise ○ Gathering claim ( operational definitions)- talking abot Pure: just want to know research and understand why things happen - Wanting to know - Academia ( pure) - Validity: if it can be studied - Not a valid representation - Is the test testing me on what I learned or is there outside knowledge at play? - Does it capture what its supposed to capture - Reliability: how accurate a study - Over and over - Applied- pratcical reason why Evaluating Theories The following criteria can be used to evaluate the quality of a theory: Scope: How much of the social world is explained by the theory Logical Consistency: The theory should be free of internal contradictions. Parsimony: The theory should be as simple as possible. ○ Ocom razor - the simplest answer is usually the correct one Utility: The theory should be useful and help us understand the world. Testability: The theory should be able to be tested through research. Heurism: The theory should generate new ideas for research. ○ In an academic setting “my study is still be used”, “my study this” my study that etc etc Test of Time: The theory should be able to stand the test of time. This information from the sources should provide a solid foundation for understanding communication theory. January 22, 2025 BACKGROUND OF COMMUNICATIONS- The humanities were largely studied throughout liberal arts schools New field of public speaking (National Association of Public Speaking) NCA - To be taken seriously they needed research Why did they need to do research within this new field? Prestige was made up of the research within the stem field and therefore communications had to incorporate - Impacts theories based on the two sides stem then more like history, lit etc 1914- growing power the the stem field 1930s- radio - Radio got split into public speaking and journalism Wilbert wanted to go into psychology and sociology Communication is a social science ( more powerful in a college setting) EXPRESSION DEBATE DISCUSSION TECHNIQUES TONE, PHOTONICS, SOCIOLOGY SUBDIVISION OF HUMAN COMMUNICATIONS Intrapersonal- Communications that happen within yourself (overlap with psychology) Cognitive distinctive theory- Interpersonal- communication field face-to-face Ex: Romantic relationships, office relationships Small Group- Communication dynamics that make a group do better. Networks, or communication patterns, and roles, or specific behaviors characterize it. Trying to solve a problem FAMILY ISNT AN EXAMPLE What leads to the most efficient communication? Organizational Communication - “ large extended networks” - Could have small groups, organizations, etc all within an organization. Often associated with business school, organizational psychology Rhetoric/Public communication- One person tries to create influence over a group - Extended audience Ex: is how a teacher teaches Mass communication- when you use another channel of communication other than face-to-face, studying the influence of other forms of communication Intracultural- how different cultures, nations, and co-cultures and what conflicts arise When do you Economic - overlaps with international studies How to solve conflict between different groups of people Ex: high contexts and low contexts culture (low- leave understanding to context, rely on each other | high context culture explains everything- value independence, eastern culture) Chapter 3 What is Theory? Definition: A theory is a "formalized explanation" of how things work. It's a way of making sense of the world by explaining, understanding, predicting or creating social change. Theories involve concepts and relationships. Concepts: Concepts are key terms or ideas. They are the building blocks of theory and can be concrete or abstract. For example, "friendship" is a concept that can have different meanings in different contexts. Relationships: Theories specify the connections between concepts. These relationships can be linear, interactive, or even transactional. Level of Generality: Theories can vary in their level of generality, ranging from very broad ("grand") to very specific ("narrow"). Goals of Theory: Explanation: Theories provide reasons for why things happen. Understanding: Theories offer insights into the nature of phenomena. Prediction: Some theories aim to predict future outcomes. Social Change: Some theories are developed to promote social change by identifying inequities and offering solutions. Theory and Experience The relationship between theory and experience is complex. Theories are based on observations, but those observations are also shaped by existing theories. Theory and research should inform each other. Approaches to Knowing (Generating Knowledge) There are different approaches to generating knowledge and building theory, each with its own assumptions: Positivistic Approach: ○ Assumptions: This approach assumes that the world is objective, can be measured, and that there are universal laws that can be discovered. ○ Goals: The goal is to explain and predict. ○ Method and Task: Researchers using this approach typically use quantitative methods and begin with a theory and test it through research. ○ Theory to Research: This approach moves from a general theory to a specific application. Interpretive (or Hermeneutic) Approach: ○ Assumptions: This approach assumes that reality is socially constructed and that people's interpretations are important. ○ Goals: The goal is to understand meanings, experiences and perspectives. ○ Method and Task: Researchers using this approach often employ qualitative methods and develop theory from the research. ○ Research to Theory: This approach is inductive, moving from specific observations to broader theoretical ideas. Critical Approach: ○ Assumptions: This approach assumes that power structures shape social realities and that some groups are marginalized. ○ Goals: The goal is to critique the status quo and promote social justice. ○ This approach often involves examining existing power relations and inequalities. Questions About the World (Ontology, Epistemology, Axiology) - These are three key areas of inquiry in theory building: Ontology: The study of the nature of reality. Different approaches to knowing have different ontological assumptions. ○ Positivistic Ontology: Reality is objective and exists independently of the observer. ○ Interpretive Ontology: Reality is socially constructed, and there may be multiple realities. ○ Critical Ontology: Reality is shaped by power relations, and some groups have more influence in defining it. Epistemology: The study of how we know things. This also varies by approach. ○ Positivistic Epistemology: Knowledge is gained through observation and measurement. ○ Interpretive Epistemology: Knowledge is gained by understanding people's lived experiences. ○ Critical Epistemology: Knowledge is shaped by power, and some perspectives may be privileged over others. Axiology: The study of values. ○ Positivistic Axiology: Values should be kept separate from research to maintain objectivity. ○ Interpretive Axiology: Values influence the research process, and researchers should acknowledge their own values. ○ Critical Axiology: Research should be value-driven and aim for social change. Formed by money, power, “the man” Types of Theories Covering Law Approach: This approach uses general laws to explain phenomena. These laws are assumed to apply across situations. This is what happen in this situation Action and result Positivitic approach align Predictable All situations and people Rules Approach: This approach uses rules or norms to guide how people interact. ○ Influenced my community and people around you Systems Approach: This approach emphasizes the interconnectedness and interdependence of parts in a system. ○ Studying all parts ○ Interdependent larger system Ex: classroom: different people, new teacher, new class, new material ○ Key Concepts of Systems Approach: Wholeness, interdependence, hierarchy, boundaries, calibration, and equifinality. The Research Process Deductive Reasoning: Theorists often move from a general theory to a specific application. This involves - Using the premise - Facts - (postivitic) ○ Identifying a puzzling observation ○ Developing a hypothesis ○ Operationalizing concepts: Defining concepts in a measurable way ○ Creating a data collection procedure ○ Coding data-how frequently does something happen ○ and testing the hypothesis ○ Using quantitative or qualitative methods Inductive Reasoning: Moving from specific observations to generate new theories. ○ Creating preminise ○ Gathering claim ( operational definitions)- talking abot Pure: just want to know research and understand why things happen - Wanting to know - Academia ( pure) - Validity: if it can be studied - Not a valid representation - Is the test testing me on what I learned or is there outside knowledge at play? - Does it capture what its supposed to capture - Reliability: how accurate a study - Over and over - Applied- pratcical reason why Evaluating Theories The following criteria can be used to evaluate the quality of a theory: Scope: How much of the social world is explained by the theory Logical Consistency: The theory should be free of internal contradictions. Parsimony: The theory should be as simple as possible. ○ Ocom razor - the simplest answer is usually the correct one Utility: The theory should be useful and help us understand the world. Testability: The theory should be able to be tested through research. Heurism: The theory should generate new ideas for research. ○ In an academic setting “my study is still be used”, “my study this” my study that etc etc Test of Time: The theory should be able to stand the test of time. This information from the sources should provide a solid foundation for understanding communication theory. January 17th 2025 The goal of communication is to understand temper through thoughtfulness | Through thoughtfulness? Why? How? Language representing feeling? Verbertem NEED TO KNOW: What is communication? “A social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and interpret meaning in the environment.” Social Process - “People have experiences with different words” - it creates a pattern of knowing - Not static - Interpreting words (making it ongoing) Symbols - arbitrary- interept (given meaning)(room for miscommunication) - not always up to the individual Ex: society doesn't accept the word “daddy” Meaning - (becoming good using things such as symbols vis versa)- improve meaning - Layered - Meaning can be clarified specifically face-to-face Environment - Situation or context of the interaction - The meaning changes based on the context - Can give feelings (such as confidence) ex: giving a presentation in your setting you have practiced in before - Most people don't pay attention to context Because its a field and those are the sub-fields within it and determine what they study How does each part of the definition of communication play into each other? Intentionality? The Palo Alto, California MORE NOTES NEEDED - look back in the text 1950s groups - Cannot not Communicate Linear Model (Shannon & Weaver): L - oversimplified, linear, sender-receiver, passive (49) (ex: radio played a good role) very clear not a social interaction one-sided Interactional Model: I - two ways back and forth, ex: volleyball. - How are you taking this? - Different meanings interpreted differently - Speaking and responding not at the same time Transactional Model (Barnlund): T- Emphasis on the field of experience Compared to dance —---One can be skilled but needs to be adjusted from person to person Ex: your only as good as your weakest link emphasizes the simultaneous and ongoing nature of communication. It highlights "cooperative meaning," suggesting that communicators work together to create shared understanding. What real-life situations can you account for the L.I.T? Gaslighting - bad communication and can be accounted as maybe intentions 1. Overview of Cognitive Dissonance Theory (CDT) Basic Principle: CDT is an account of how inconsistencies between cognitions (beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors) lead to discomfort, which motivates people to reduce this dissonance. The theory posits that people desire consistency in their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Cognition Relationships: CDT focuses on the relationships between cognitions, which can be consonant (consistent), dissonant (inconsistent), or irrelevant (unrelated). 2. Four Assumptions of CDT (1) Desire Consistency Seeking (bc we don't like dissonance): Humans desire consistency in their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. People do not enjoy inconsistencies in their thoughts and beliefs and seek consistency. Ex: being body-positive to everyone but struggles with body dysmorphia (2) Psychological Inconsistency: Dissonance is created by psychological, not necessarily logical, inconsistencies between cognitions. (3) Aversive State: Dissonance is an uncomfortable, aversive state that drives people to action with measurable effects (4)Motivation for Consonance: Dissonance motivates people to strive for consonance and to reduce dissonance. What options are there to reduce dissonance? Stop the action or accept the action, and change the perception of self Justification Use symbols to reduce dissonance 3. Concepts and Processes of CDT Magnitude of Dissonance: Refers to the quantitative amount of dissonance a person experiences. The amount of discomfort can vary. ( how much does it bother you) Example: climate change activist and drives a gas guzzler Three Factors Influencing Magnitude of Dissonance: Importance: The significance of the issue at hand. The more important the issue, the greater the dissonance. EX: say climate doesn't matter to you Dissonance Ratio: The proportion of dissonant cognitions to consonant cognitions. A higher ratio of dissonant cognitions leads to greater dissonance. EX: justifying it by maybe playing up positive Rationale: The reasoning used to explain the inconsistency. The more reasons one has to account for the discrepancy, the less dissonance will be felt. EX: “The environment isn't that bad” “ Data isn't concrete” 4. Three Ways to Cope with Dissonance Adding or Subtracting Cognitions: Changing the ratio of consonant to dissonant cognitions by adding consonant beliefs or subtracting dissonant ones. Reducing the Importance of Dissonant Cognitions: Downplaying the significance of the inconsistent beliefs. Changing Beliefs: Modifying beliefs to eliminate the dissonance. 5. Coping with Dissonance Through Selective Perception People engage in selective exposure, selective attention, selective interpretation, and selective retention to avoid information that increases dissonance. Selective Exposure: Seeking consistent information not already present - SEEK out things to add positive things. Selective attention- ignoring things that give you dissonance - Can be unconscious Selective interpretation- you see things in a way that makes them less dissonance, more constituent Selective retention- only remembering the things that add to the consonance CDT predicts that people will avoid information that increases dissonance and seek information consistent with their attitudes and behaviors. 6. Minimal Justification- Doing something a person does not believe in for a minimal reward creates more dissonance than doing the same thing for a larger reward. Ex: doing sports photography for free: Doing photography upcharged: doing it for money People who engage in deception for a small reward may change their opinion of the task to reduce dissonance. CDT and Persuasion Buyer’s Remorse: Dissonance felt after making a large purchase. Dissonance and Communication: Dissonance can motivate communication as people seek to persuade others and reduce their own dissonant cognitions. 8. Four Critiques of CDT - dissonance isn't tangible (relying on what people say and do) Utility: Some argue that other theories can explain attitude change better. Conceptual Fuzziness: The concept of dissonance is seen as unclear by some, who suggest that it is confounded by self-concept or impression management. Self-Perception: Some argue that people infer their attitudes by observing their behavior (self-perception) rather than experiencing dissonance. Testability: It is hard to disprove the theory, because when people do not act as predicted, proponents can argue the dissonance was not strong enough. 9. Relationship to "Diffident" The provided definition of "diffident" describes someone as lacking self-confidence, timid, and distrustful of their own powers. Cognitive dissonance theory could explain how a person might become diffident: Inconsistency and Self-Perception: If a person holds a belief that they are capable, but experiences repeated failures or inconsistencies between this belief and their actual performance, they may experience dissonance. Dissonance Reduction: To reduce this dissonance, they may reduce the importance of their initial belief in their capabilities or change that belief entirely, thus developing a diffident attitude. Selective Perception: A person experiencing this dissonance might start to seek out information that reinforces their negative self-perception, further contributing to diffidence. In essence, CDT suggests that diffidence may be, in part, a way to cope with the discomfort of holding inconsistent beliefs about oneself and their actions. Someone with a high level of self-confidence is likely not feeling a strong sense of cognitive dissonance related to their abilities and actions. CORE DEFINITIONS OF CORE MANAGEMENT OF MEANING Definition and Analogy: CMM views life as an undirected theater with self-appointed directors. It focuses on how individuals co-create meaning through communication. Assumptions of CMM: CMM is built on three assumptions: ○ Human beings live in communication. ○ People co-create social reality through communication. ○ Information transactions are dependent on personal and interpersonal meaning. Hierarchy of Organized Meaning CMM organizes meaning in a hierarchical pattern of six levels: Content: The raw data that needs interpretation. For example, the words, "I love you" represent content that need further interpretation. Speech Acts: Actions performed through speech, like promises, threats, questions, or compliments. For example, the phrase "I love you" can be an assertion or an act of complimenting, depending on the context and relationship. Episodes: Communication routines or recurring events that have beginnings, middles, and endings. Episodes describe contexts in which people communicate. For instance, a family dinner can be an episode. Relationship: Understanding and agreement between people. It involves recognizing the potential and limitations of interpersonal partners. This involves how people see each other as friends, family, or coworkers. Life Scripts: Past and present episodes that define a person's sense of self. These are a person's autobiography and how they see themselves. Cultural Patterns: Shared beliefs or values among a particular group. These patterns include views on sex, race, class, and spirituality. Coordination Definition: Coordination is how people attempt to make sense of message sequencing and achieve coherence in conversations. It involves people working together to interact effectively. Achieving coordination may be partial or imperfect, rather than a complete or perfect process, with some interactions being only partially coordinated. CMM recognizes that individuals try to coordinate their actions on a daily basis, and may not achieve perfect coordination. Influences on the Coordination Process Morality: Social and ethical values influence the coordination process. Individuals strive to behave with morality and honor. Resources: This includes the stories, images, symbols and institutions that people use to make sense of their world. These resources influence how people perceive their social realities. Rules and Unwanted Repetitive Patterns (URPs) Rules: CMM proposes rules as guidelines for behavior and are of two types: ○ Constitutive Rules: These help individuals understand how to interpret behavior within a given context. ○ Regulative Rules: These provide guidelines for behavior and can determine an action's sequence. Unwanted Repetitive Patterns (URPs): These are dysfunctional cycles of interaction that occur when people get stuck in patterns of conflict. URPs are common in relationships when individuals are not able to coordinate their actions. Charmed and Strange Loops Charmed Loops: Occur when rules of meaning are consistent throughout the hierarchy of meaning. These loops involve interactions that confirm each other. An example would be a painter and client who are consistently in agreement on the painting job. Strange Loops: Occur when patterns of meaning change within the loop. The rules of meaning are inconsistent. A scenario where someone is drinking alcohol and engages in a pattern of denial exemplifies a strange loop. Critiques of CMM Scope: Some scholars argue that CMM is too broad. It attempts to cover too much, making it difficult to apply in a specific context. However, the text indicates that CMM theorists claim that it is not too broad, but rather a "worldview". Parsimony: CMM may not be the most simple or concise theory, and some claim it's "cumbersome". However, CMM theorists maintain that its complexity is necessary for understanding complex communication. Utility: CMM can be used to enhance understanding of people and how they coordinate meaning and is considered a "practical theory". CMM has been used to study many situations, like family communication, health communication and conflict. Additional Notes The theorists behind CMM emphasize the idea that communication is always in process, ongoing, and dynamic, rather than a static event. CMM is considered a theory that can help in the development of better understanding and communication and is considered to have a pragmatic value.

HCOMM-1400-1 Theories of Human Communication (10) PDF

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