PDF: European Political Cooperation (EPC) - EU History

1970s: European Political Cooperation (EPC) Initiated during the Cold War's d.tente period (→ Relaxation of tensions between US & SU) Willy Brandt’s Ostpolitik: - German initiative to improve relations with the Soviet Union. → Strategy to normalize relations between west Germany and Eastern bloc cou...

1970s: European Political Cooperation (EPC) Initiated during the Cold War's d.tente period (→ Relaxation of tensions between US & SU) Willy Brandt’s Ostpolitik: - German initiative to improve relations with the Soviet Union. → Strategy to normalize relations between west Germany and Eastern bloc countries, including East germany → Part of Detente and aimed to improve communication, trade with the east and promote peace and stability in a divided Europe Membership of the UK: - Joined in 1973, showing the European communities growing appeal and its role in Western europe (both politically and economically) Lome Agreements with ACP countries: - Signed in 1975, the agreements established trade and aid partnership between the EC and ACP countries (Africa, Carbibean, Pacific) → Trade preferences for ACP countries to export to the EC without tariffs and development aid for infrastructure and economic projects 1970s Petrol Crisis - Revealed Europe’s vulnerability to external shocks, highlighting the urgent need for a coordinated foreign policy. This triggered discussions on European Political Cooperation (EPC) to address economic and political crises collectively. → highlighted the European dependence on the Middle east. European council meetings initiated: - Refers to the start of regular summits where heads of state or government of EU member states meet to set strategic priorities and address key issues. These meetings marked a step toward greater political coordination and laid the groundwork for unified decision-making in the EU. Foreign ministers speak foreign policy + COREU: - Foreign ministers from EC MS began coordinating their stances on international issues to present a united front. - COREU: communication network to facilitate quick information exchange between EU foreign ministers → laid foundation Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) Henry Kissinger’s Question: "With whom do I speak for Europe?" - Emphasized the lack of unity. → there wasn't really a vocal point in the EU, too much fragmentation in European diplomacy. Fran.ois Duch.ne’s Civilian Power Europe: - Promoted Europe’s role as a global civilian power: emphasizing its reliance on economic influence, diplomacy and development aid rather than military might. (→ reflects Ditrany’s idea of Functionalism) Single European Act (1987) Formalized European Political Cooperation (EPC). → Structured framework for MS to coordinate foreign policy. - Decision-making remained intergovernmental (unanimity/ consensus). (→ maintaining strong control by individual member states) - No role for the Commission, EP, or ECJ. → To ensure they stayed intergovernmental rather than supranational. Maastricht Treaty (1992) - Established CFSP as the EU’s second pillar. → Formalizing and expanding European on foreign and security issues. - Introduced: common positions, joint actions, and common strategies. - Military dimension supported by the WEU (inner six), providing military capability for crisis management and peacekeeping - Petersberg Tasks: Focused on humanitarian rescue, peacekeeping, and crisis management as priorities for EU military operations. - Raised questions about NATO’s role and potential overlap (WEU/NATO/CFSP triangle). → Would they duplicate effort and divide responsibilities? Would that work? - 1996 Berlin + European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI) - ESDI allowed the EU to access NATO resources for its own military operations, ensuring cooperation while avoiding duplication. This framework strengthened EU-NATO collaboration in defense. Amsterdam Treaty (1997) Created the High Representative for CFSP (first: Javier Solana, 1999). → to strengthen the visibility and coherence of EU foreign policy (with whom do I speak with?) - Institutionalized warning and policy planning mechanisms → react faster to crises. - Introduced QMV (Qualified Majority Voting) for some foreign policy decisions → to make decision making faster. (not military policies!) 1990s moving unto early 2000s Bosnian war (1992 - 1995) - Bill Clinton emphasized that the conflict was a European issue, pushing EU countries to take responsibility for peacekeeping and reconstruction efforts. This highlighted Europe’s need for stronger defense coordination. Franco-British St. Malo Summit (1998) - France and the UK agreed on the need for EU autonomous military capabilities, independent of NATO, while still complimenting it. This marked a significant step toward a common European defense policy. NATO’s Kosovo intervention (1999) - NATO launched a military intervention to stop ethnic cleansing in Kosovo, exposing Europe’s reliance on NATO for security operations and underscoring the EU’s limited military capabilities at the time. Helsinki Headline Goal (1999) - Goal: up to 60.000 forces by 2003, to be deployed within a month, to serve for a year Civilian Goal (2000) - To support post-conflict stabilization, the EU aimed to deploy 5,000 civilian experts, including judges and public prosecutors, to help restore governance and the rule of law in crisis regions. Nice European Council (2000) - Introduced key defense structures, including the Political and Security Committee (PSC), EU Military Committee, and EU Military Staff, to facilitate decision-making and planning for EU-led operations. It also allowed for operations independent of NATO. EU-NATO Declaration (2002) - Formalized cooperation between EU and NATO, defining how they would share resources and coordinate military operations to avoid duplication of efforts. European Security Strategy (2003) Developed in response to US “Bush Doctrine” (2002) emphasizing unilateral action: - Pre-emptive strikes → the right to strike first against threats. - Focus on WMD → Combating materials increasing was central to U.S. policy. - War on Terror → Global military action against terrorism, including the invasion of Iraq in 2003. Identified 5 security challenges: 1. Terrorism → growing concern post 9/11. 2. Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) → nuclear weapons posed a big threat. 3. Regional conflicts → Like the Balkans, Middle East and Africa created instability that could spill into Europe. 4. Organized crime → Cross border crime, drug smuggling etc. was getting more sophisticated and globalized. 5. State failure → weaker states would become havens for terrorism, crime → and so threatening European interests. → Advocated for multilateralism and international law as EU’s guiding principles. → Normative Power Europe (Ian Manners, 2002): EU promotes norms like human rights and abolishing the death penalty globally. Before and after Lisbon Treaty 2003: First EU military missions with NATO resources W. Balkans 2004: First EU military mission without NATO resources in Congo 2004: European Defence Agency (EDA) - Denmark (and UK) not participating. 26 countries - Aim to facilitate and support Defence Cooperation and capabilities (control, command, communication, logistical capabilities). - European Defence Fund (co-finance defence industry and research projects) 2009: Lisbon Treaty HR/VP - Established the role of HR/VP (High Representative/Vice President) to strengthen foreign policy coordination. - European External Action Service (EEAS) created from staff from: Commission, Council Secretariat, and National Foreign Ministries. EU Global Strategy: Principled Pragmatism, balancing its core values (like human rights) with realistic and effective foreign policy actions. Permanent Structured Cooperation (PeSCO) PeSCO, a legally binding framework for enhancing coordination, increasing investments and more defence cooperation under the Lisbon Treaty and Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). - Participating is voluntary for MS. → UK, Denmark and Malta do not participate. - Decision-making will remain in the hands of the participating Member - States in the Council. → This is without prejudice to the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain EU Member States (neutrality). - Examples of PeSCo projects: Network of Logistic Hubs, Cyber Rapid Response Teams and Joint EU Intelligence School. PeSCo and Third States (UK and /or Turkey) - Third states can participate in PeSCo projects under certain conditions, full membership is limited to EU MS that commit to binding defense obligations (ex. MS that invest in improving military capabilities and contributing to EU security). - So third states can’t join, but can participate if they meet the general conditions set by the council - MS that are involved with a certain project decide whether to invite a third state and the council needs to approve. - Third states must respect decision making autonomy of the EU and not undermine PeSCo’s goals. (ex. Turkey helps with migration & UK helps with military operations). Impact of the War in Ukraine - Raised questions about the protection of neutral EU member states (e.g., Austria, Ireland, Cyprus, Malta). → neutral EU members are not covered by NATO’s article 5 - Germany and other EU states stepped up military investments, similar to the COVID- 19 rescue package. - European Peace Facility: €5 billion fund for rapid crisis response and urgent military assistance.