Respiratory System Anatomy and Physiology
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This document provides an overview of the human respiratory system, detailing key anatomical structures such as the lungs, bronchi, trachea, and alveoli, along with their functions in gas exchange and breathing. It explores the mechanics and physiology of respiration, including lung volumes and capillary exchange. Key terms, such as bronchoconstriction and ventilation zones, are also outlined.
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Absolutely! Here is the conversion of the image into a structured markdown as requested. ### NARINA * Regulation of temperature, barrier mechanism, olfactory system. * duct e vo mrLe:me, para Illic a:n ffsternide nasales * The cold air generates severe edema and affects the ciliary functi...
Absolutely! Here is the conversion of the image into a structured markdown as requested. ### NARINA * Regulation of temperature, barrier mechanism, olfactory system. * duct e vo mrLe:me, para Illic a:n ffsternide nasales * The cold air generates severe edema and affects the ciliary function that allows movement of mucus and particles, causes infections ### MUSCLES * Diaphragm (inspiratory) * Intercostals * Abdominals * Accessories The rib cage has negative pressure of -13 and -5 **Receptors**: sympathetic (B2), parasympathetic (muscarinic and nicotinic) = Bronchoconstriction ### ULMONES * Vital respiratory organ, protected by ribs and diaphragm. Right: 10 segments left: 8 segments * Venous blood exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with each air movement and _rnflujo. * Formed by vertex, base, two or three lobes, two fissures and three faces (costal, mediastinum a and diaphragmatic) and three borders (anterior, inferior and posterior) * Oxygenation is 97%, the rest is lost in dead space. When there is less flow it is pathological. * The pulmonary artery perfuses pulmonary areas, the importance lies in capillarity. * West Zones Zone 1 (high ventilation and low perfusion), zone 2 (ventilation = perfusion), zone 3 low ventilation, high perfusion). The image includes a schematic diagram of the three west zones Zone 1 Alta ventilación Baja perfusión FT10.C.OO \cY\ S Zona 2 Ventilacion = perfusión Zona 3 Baja ventilación Alta perfusion ### PULMONARY FACES AND EDGES * **Costal**: thoracic wall, large and convex (inferior and posterior border) * **Mediastinal**: mediastinum, heart, organs, is the hilum that receives the root of the lung. (Inferior and anterior border) * Diaphragm: supported on the diaphragm, concave is the base of the lung T. (Surrounded by inferior border) The superior lobe of the small right bronchus anatomy causes things to become lodged (bronchoaspiration). Atelectasis is the accumulation of mucus, can generate pulmonary collapse, exchange area is lost because the alveoli collapse and the dead physiological space increases, causes infections #### Pulmonary hilum : wedge-shaped on the mediastinal face, is the entry and exit point of structures that irrigate and drain the lungs. Bronchi: put in and take out air **Pulmonary artery**: carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. **Pulmonary veins**: carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. **Lymphatic vessels**: drain excess fluid ### PLEURA **Visceral**: pulmonary surface. **Parietal**: internal thoracic wall, mediastinum and diaphragm. **Pleural space**: serous pleural fluid that serves to lubricate and allow movement during inspiration. ### TRACHEA * Fibromuscular (smooth) cartilaginous (hyaline cartilage) tube that connects the larynx with the main bronchi (10-12 cm long and 2.5 in diameter), (ciliated epithelium) * The bronchial cartilages become sick and collapse the airway, laryngomalacia occurs when the rings of cartilage of the trachea are softer, causing a whistle as a diagnosis and is an intermittent anatomical obstruction. * The trachea of infants is 0.5 in diameter, causing greater risk of obstruction, the current volume is less than that of an adult. * The QI_Ucosa tracheal has ciliated epithelium, is for protection and cleaning, the cold damages the ciliary function, allows the passage of viruses, bacteria particles and accumulates mucus causing infections, it is corrected with steroids. (is expelled by cough) ### TRAQUEA * Mucosa: ciliated pseudo stratified epithelium, has bundles of thick elastic fibers(so that it can be distended), separates mucosa from submucosa. * Submucosa: has mucous and submucosal glands, short ducts that perforate elastic laminae (elastin) and propia, flows into epithelial surface. ### ADVENTICIA : fibroelastic connective tissue, has rings in e of hyaline cartilage, intermediate fibrous connective tissue, fixes the trachea. * Bronchioles: smaller than bronchi but still larger than alveolar ducts, lacking cartilage. * Cells of the diffuse neuroendocrine system: are 3-4%, have long and thin processes that go to the light, monitor oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the light of the airway, have granules in the basal cytoplasm, host (peptides such as acetylcholine and adenosine tyrosine phosphate. * Ronchitis = eTili * Los se--gnre--ntos solo sinren ara cu ocer casi rcació anatómtca, e en rmedades * The respiratory center is powered by $CO_2$ that governs ventilation automatically, this $CO_2$ stimulates chemoreceptors that stimulate muscles to initiate breathing (volume/current). * Diffusion $PO_2$ 100ml = 97% saturation ### BRONCHIAL TREE * Se r, amifica in the trachea, divides into main bronchi (right and left), lobar, segmental (bronchioles of conduccLón, terminal bronchioles_s y, ronquiolos respiratory) * Conduction bronchioles: 20-25 and air transport do not have glands or alveoli. * Terminal bronchioles: small conduction, have alveoli. * Brnn.quiolos respjratmios· transport e·ntercambio of gases, gives rise to 2-11 conduits to al.leo ares * Alveolar ducts and sacs: each originates 5-6 alveolar sacs, which are airways, respiratory revestidas of alveoli, common spaces that open in clusters. * Between 6-8 years children have a lung similar to that of an adult, there are 300-500 million alveoli * That the alveoli are in clusters allows a good volume/current flow * It is ventilated to 21% which equals a $pO_2$ of 100% and is measured in millimeters of mercurio. * $CO_2$ stimulates chemoreceptors that regulate breathing, when there is intoxication from the respiratory system is because it is more akin to hemoglobin so the treatment is oxygen. * The anatomical dead space stimulates where the other 3% remains at the time of diffusion. * Ot S LJnidades--basic structural parcrintercambio gas develops--n to 8 years (30 -500 millionJ ### EMBRYOLOGY * The ectoderm forms the trachea and bronchi. * The ..enclocler_m_o orma_la úsce_ras. * The somatic mesoderm forms the parietal pleura. * The splachnic embryo forms the visceral pleura. * In the fourth 'i fifth week there are the pharyngeal arches, the fourth and sixth arches form the larynx. #### Sixth week The fourth arch will form the epiglottis, the sixth the laryngeal orifice or that connects larynx with trachea and the cartilages of the larynx. The main and lobar bronchi are also formed * When there is a scarring between the esophagus and trachea: atresi that is ica The type 3 is the most common, there is a communication in the lower part of the esophagus with the trachea, generates unatís la rn uenesa agica, the intestinal content moves to the space of the lungs, the content ro It will go to the lung causing pneumonitis at the time ac ie or the product will not be able to eat because the food bolus will not be able to pass. In the pregnancy the patient will present polyhydramnios because the teto cannot swallow, this liquid allows the lungs to form. * Surfactant production begins in week 20. In the secular period the fetus can generate hyaline membrane disease, surfactant is given, s. cub and improves lung mechanics complaing when the lung is less stiff. * The placenta is the lung of the fetus. * The I"" uia or amniotic functions as a stimulus for pulmonary development. In a caesarean delivery the amniotic fluid goes into the lymphatic vessels, s eabsm:IIB, but is reduced to a comparison to a natural birth. The other percentage will be expelled through the nose and mouth, an aspiration is made to the product allowing the lung to be dry (crying functions as a stimulus for the xp sion of the amniotic fluid, inspiration generates that resistance pulmonary decreases and increases the pressure, causing the circulation to return to the adult). The liquid in the lungs generates tachypnea in children. * Hyaline membrane disease: there is a percussion-ventilation inequality, the space of the oxygen exchange is reduced and the physiological dead state is increased, generates bipoxia, atelectasis pulmonary collapse, there is no good volume/current this happens err- premature not generating enough pulmonary surfactant-- 7 wks). * Children who do not produce amniotic fluid may present pulmonary hypoplasia. (Oligohy dramnios) * Tracheoesophageal fistulas Type A: communication with the distal part of the esophagus, there is a blind pouch in the proximal part, food goes to the lungs and there is vomiting. Type B: There is no communication between trachea and esophagus, there are two blind pouches. Type C: Communication between esophagus and trachea, there is no atresia. Type D: Esophagus Atresa Distal Type E: **Endoderm**: lining of the laryngotracheal groove, pulmonary epithelium, glands of the larynx, trachea and bronchi. #### Splachnic mesoderm Connective tissue, cartilage, smooth muscle of larynx, trachea and bronchi, visceral pleura. #### Somatic mesoderm: parietal pleura WEEK 2 Fourth and sixth arch (neural crest): form tracheal cartilages, primitive glottis, entrance Larynx recanalization: in week 10 forming the laryngeal ventricles, it becomes vocal cords and vestibular folds. Epiglottis: from hypopharyngeal eminence, by profileration mesoenchyma of the third & fourth arch. The rostral part forms the posterior third of the tongue. Pharyngeal muscles since myoblasts of the fourth & sixth arches, innervated by branches of the vago X nerve. Laryngeal descent occurs in the first years of life. ### WEEK 3 Laryngotracheal diveticulum: primordial form of trachea &primary bronchial buds. The lining of the endoderm of the tubo Laryngotracheal and larynx forms epithelium & glands in trachea & lung. Evi/Wis receptor Via Wnt/B - catenin: cartridge &muscles. ### WEEK 4 Respiratory sketch in the caudal End of the laringotra tracheal diverticulum grows & divides in two bronchial gems, then in two evaginations that are gems bronchial primary. Grow Up lateral in channels peri card ioperitoneales &develop secondary & thirds. ### WEEKS Bronchial gems link up with trachea, shape up primordios from bronquios main. The right is but longer & vertical, it persists in the adult. ### WEEK 7 They form bronquios segmentarios (10 straight & 8-9 left) Together With mesoenchyma circundante, create primordios from segments broncopulmonares. #### WEEK 24 17 branching levels, respiratory bronchioles develop, after birth seven more are formed. The secondary bronchi are subdivided into lobar, segmental and intrasegmental. Right: upper lobe ventilates upper, lower ventilates the middle and lower lobe. Left: secondary bronchi ventilate upper and lower. The image contains two schematic diagrams, of the formation of lung bronchioles, and the structure of distal lung structures. They include the pharynx, trachea, esophagus, and primordial buds. ### WEEK26 It is covered by squamous epithelial cells of the endoderm, type 1 pneumocytes allow gas exchange, type 11 pneumocytes secrete surfactant (film form that coats inner walls of alveolar sacs) Newborns of 24-26 weeks can survive with deficiency of surfactant. PASEUDOGLANDULAR STAGE Semana 5-17 Week 16: formation of all or important, less gas exchange CANALICULAR STAGE Week 16-25 Lights of bronchi and bronchioles increase in caliber, pulmonary tissue acquires vascularisation. Week 24: terminal bronchioles has produced two or more respiratory bronchioles that are divided into 3-6 ducts (primitive alveolar). #### TERMINAL OR SACULAR SAC * Week 26- birth * Development of more terminal sacs (primitive alveoli) * Thin epithelium. Contact between epithelial and endothelial cells establishing barrier blood-air. * (Alveolar capillary) #### ALVEOLAR * Final of fetal period until age 8. * Existence of analogue sacs 32 weeks * End of week 38 lungs can breathe, the alveolar capillary membrane is thin and allows gas exchange. * Alveolar sacs produce surfactant. * Pulmonary and systemic blood circulation parallel. * Alveolar development is completed at age 3, alveoli are added until age 8. * Immature alveoli can form additional primitive alveoli. * Factors important for normal development * Sufficient space MFR * Appropriate amniotic fluid At birth the lungs have amniotic fluid to half their capacity, it is removed by mouth and nose, artery, veins, capillaries, lymphatic vessels The pressure of the pulmonary artery decreases 16 millimeters mercurio at the time of birth, so that the fetus receives all pulmonary expenditure is provided by the right ventricle. Venous return improves with exercise. ### HISTOLOGY * Edema in the mucosa causes anosmia, the ciliated epithelium pseudo stratified has support cells, cilia and cells that produce mucus, its function is the filtration of air, produce secretions, move them and trap the part of viruses and bacteria. Mucus functions as a barrier of defense, also causes lubrication and humidification of the air. * Mechanical swallowing disorder: sudden death in children. * The main bronchi have epithelium Ciliated cílindric pseudoestrtificado, traps bacteria and mobilizes excessive mucus. Cough has receptors that are used as a defense system allowing to expel mucus. * The entry of the current volume depends on the diameter of the airway, the structure and the muscular layer, there are parasympathetic receptors that act by acetylcholine (muscarínicos and nicotinicos} that cause broncho-constriction. Through the B2 the sympathetic produces bronchodilation. The state of homeostasis is when there is a balance in these receptors, allows the pathway to be permeable. * When there is asthma, cystic fibrosis, pneumonia, bronchiolitis, the muscle becomes ill and the mucosa. * Humidify the air, trap viruses and bacteria, maintain the diameter of the airway (muscle) is the defense system, the cold affects ciliary function. * The liquid air barrier is in the alveolar sacs, where hematosis or gas exchange occurs, there are type I nevomocites. * Type 11 nevomocites: produce the surfactant that improves pulmonary elasticity, decrease superficial tension and keeps the alveoli open in the expiration phase, allows ventilation, (hialin membrane pathology, there is no good ventilation, alveoli collapse if overpase to the weather there's more space dead physiological less compleanza) * Avoid aspiration in the airway if the muscles are not combined. * The lung NO has cilia, defense system mediated by macrophages and phagocytosis. #### Ciliated Cylindrical Endothelium Pseudo-stratified (nasal) * Caliciform cells: they are 30% of the respiratory epithelium, produce mucinogen, hydrates and is mucin when it is in aqueous environment (mucus). * Globose cells: short, basophilic, pyramidal, proliferate and substitute support and olfactory cells. * Lamina propia: joint tissue laxou, collagenoso, has Bowman glands in the olfactory mucosa, produce lactoferrin and IgA * Olfactory cells: bipolar neurons, in their distal apical end of the dendrite form the bulb, have spherical nucleus, almost all the organelos near this. * Basal celles: shorts, sons the 30 % of epithelium respiratorioe son in the membrane basal, you did llegan to la lus, sonido cellulas madre qua proliferan Y reemplazan células califormest cílindricas, ciliadas y en cepillo muertas. * Sustentacular and basal cells: cylindrical of 50-60mm, oval nucleus in the apical third cell, cytoplasm with secretive granules that have yellow pigment, of olfactory mucosa. They are classified in horizontal (flat and in the membrane). #### LARYNGEAL (Connects Traquea) EPITHELIUM * Responsible for phonation, preventing food and liquid from entering SR * Hyaline cartilage (thyroid and cricoids) * Elastic cartilages *to dilate and enter volume/current* (epiglottis, corniculated and cuneiform cartilages) * Ciliated cylindrical cells: sor -' r,nn,, --- ::titas, basal nucleus, cilia and apical microvillosidades. * In patients who have trachea atresia, tracheostomy is applied, height of cricoid cartilage. * If there is a defect in the cartilage, the airway collapses (laryngomalacia} Moco Function: maintain surfaces húmedas, atrapar partículas y previene su en Moco Caliciform Cell Ciliated Cell Basal cell ### RESPIRATORY ROUTES * Lined with ciliated epithelium (each with approx 200 cilia) * Ciliary movement: 10-20 per second, pulmonary cilia move upward (expulsion of mucus) and nasal cilia downward. * Drainage: the cilia move the mucus to the pharynx, these are swallowed or expelled. * Brush cells: 3% of the respiratory epithelium, cylindrical, stars, microvillosidades high, has sensory function / calciform cells that release mucinogen. * Serous cells: 3%, cylindrical, microvillosidades and apical granules that have secretory product of electrodenso, is a serous fluid. * Cells in the diffuse neuroendocrine system: are 3-4%, have long and slender processes that go all the way to the light of the airway, they monitor the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide, have granules in the basal cell, host (peptides such as acetylcholine and adenosine tirofosfat. * The polyenization decreases and more mucus is produced in allergic rhinitis. #### TRACHEA * **Mucosa**: ciliated pseudo estra-tíficado, has a beam of thick elastic fibers (so that it can be strained), separates mucosa from submucosa. * **Submucosa**: has mucous and submucosal glands, short ducts that perforate elastic sheets (elastin) and themselves, flows into epithelial surface. * **Adventitian**: fibro-elastic connective tissue, have rings on **O (symbol not available)** of hyaline cardilage, fibro intermediate connective tissue, fixes the breath. #### EPITHELIUM BRONQUIAL Y BRONCHIOLOS * Primary bronchi (extrapulmonary): ciliated cylindrical pseudo-stratified epithelium, has caliciform cells that secrete mucus. * Mucus-producing cells, cilia and drainage and trapping system of particles: for calciform cells that produce mucinogeno, which hydrates and is mucina in the mucus. * Intrapulmonary bronchioles (secondary and tertiary): irregular plates of hyaline cartilage, are flat, interfaces smooth muscle lamina propria #### Terminal bronchioles * subdivide to form various bronchioles, diameter less than 0.5mm, are the end of the conducting portion, carry air to the alveoli. Cells producers of mucus, cilia and drainage system: caliciform cells with mucinogen. #### Bronchioles * carry air to the pulmonary lobe, do not have cartilage, less than 1mm diameter, cleara cells in epithelium. First portion that exchanges gases. They have cylindrical simple ciliated epithelium, caliciform cells in big ones. #### Alveoli * comuposities by pneumocytes It and 11 (walls), each has evaginacion of