Biology Guide PDF

Marina Chavez Biology Guide First Period Anabolic Reaction: Those reactions that consume energy to make or transform chemical bonds. Cellular Respiration. Catabolic Reaction: Reactions that release energy when chemical bonds are broken. Photosynthesis. Cellula...

Marina Chavez Biology Guide First Period Anabolic Reaction: Those reactions that consume energy to make or transform chemical bonds. Cellular Respiration. Catabolic Reaction: Reactions that release energy when chemical bonds are broken. Photosynthesis. Cellular Metabolism: cellular metabolism consists of the chemical reactions (anabolic and catabolic) that take place inside the cell that are essential for survival. Aerobic Respiration: (in the mitochondria) when oxygen is present, turn glucose into energy. Anaerobic Respiration: (in the cytoplasm) no oxygen present, turn sugars into energy Biochemical Pathways: is a step by step series of interconnected biochemical reactions in which each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme. The three most used biomolecules in our bodies are: 1. Protein 2. Lipids 3. Carbohydrates Choose if the nest sentences are true or false: F Sugar is bad for our diets F Starch is a monomer T It is not proven that a sugar rush exists T The discovery of a sugar substitute was an accident F Plants obtain most of the material to grow from the soil T The digestive System transforms food into energy to keep you alive T Saliva is produced in the mouth and helps break down food with amylases enzymes F The stomach is where fats are dissolved. T The small intestine is where most of the nutrients fro food are absorbed into the bloodstream.  Marina Chavez ATP (adenosine triphosphate): is the nucleotide that provides all the energy for your body. Lipids: the most common is the phospholipids, which have a hydrophilic head made of phosphate and the hydrophobic tail that is made of fatty acids. - Cholesterol: helps give the cell membrane strength, flexibility and takes away its fluidity and permeability. Proteins: are chains of amino acids, regulate movement of substances, allow communication, Monosaccharides: only one chain or ring involved, simple sugars such as glucose and galactose. Disaccharides: two or more chains or rings bonded together for example; sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Polysaccharides: complex carbohydrates, like cellulose, starch, chitin, and glycogen (stores energy for animals). Digestive System: 1. Saliva: breaks down food into bolus (small chewed food), and transports it into esophagus. 2. Peristalsis: (muscle movement) it goes down into the stomach. 3. Stomach: Muscles pound bolus into chunks, then hormones liberte acids that dissolve food and break down proteins. Alerts Pancreas liver and gallbladder to create juices. 4. Digestion: after 3h the liquid goes down the duodenum to digest. The leftover fiber and waste (stool) go to the large intestine wall. 5. Colon: it squeezes it into the rectum, where it then expands and then tells the body to expel it. - Small intestine helps absorb the main carbohydrates. - The liver is where the energy is stored for animals. Biomolecules Monomers Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Lipids Fatty acids Nucleic Acid Nucleotides Protein Amino acids  Marina Chavez DNA Primary Structure - Peptide bond Secondary Structure - Helix Tertiary Structure - Folded Quaternary - Several tertiary joined - Peptide bond: two or more amino acids joined together. DNA vs. RNA Cytosine - Guanine Adenine - Thymine Uracil - Adenine Open Systems: living organisms are considered open systems to matter and energy because through all their lives they consume and release energy into and from the environment. What is a catalyst? It is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without changing itself in the process. Substrate Substrate Products  Marina Chavez True or False F Enzymes are non specific to a substrate F Enzyme's shape is determined by the sequence of carbohydrates in its structure F All the enzymes are non polar molecules T Catalytic efficiency can make that one reaction occurs 1000 faster than the corresponding uncatalyzed reaction T Enzymes are never expressed in terms of their concentration Enzymes Active Site: it binds to the substrate and is where the catalyst occurs, also forms the Enzyme-Substrate complex (ES-complex). The catalytic cycle of an enzyme: 1. Enzyme approaches an active site. 2. Enzyme-Substrate complex forms. 3. Substrate transforms into a product. 4. Product released 5. Enzyme is recycled. Energy of activation: is the amount of energy needed for a reaction to take place in a stable molecule. - The catalyzer accelerates the reaction process while also lowering the energy used, compared to the ones in the uncatalyzed ones. - It is expressed as moles per second. (10 moles of lactose to glucose and galactose per second)  Marina Chavez - For example: in lactose-free milk they separate the lactase from the glucose, and in beer they transform the starches into fermentable sugars. Holoenzyme: - Cofactors: coenzyme - loosely bound (noncovalent). prosthetic group - tightly bound (covalent). Nomenclature for enzymes: -ase is added to the name of the substrate or the type of reaction. The difference between enzymes and proteins is that all proteins are enzymes except some RNA, but not all proteins are enzymes. Properties of enzymes: - 1000 times faster with a catalyst. - They only interact with their specific substrate and only do one reaction. - For the reaction to take place it needs temperature, pH, substrate concentration, atmospheric pressure. - Enzymes are never expressed in terms of their concentration. Second Period Autotrophic Nutrition: are the ones that can produce their own food for energy and nutrients. These receive their nutrients from sunlight and inorganic compounds. Plants, algae, and bacteria. They are also the producers. Heterotrophic nutrition: are the ones that need to obtain their nutrients from another source. These receive their nutrients from organic compounds. Animals, most bacteria, and fungi. They are also the consumers. Chemosynthesis: the use of energy released by inorganic chemicals to produce nutrients. Flower - Grasshopper - Frog - Snake Primary Producer - Primary Consumer - Secondary - Tertiary - Fungi and Bacteria  Marina Chavez Autotrophic or Heterotrophic A Chemosynthesis H Fermentation H Cellular respiration A Photosynthesis Why are Cellular respiration and Photosynthesis complementary? They are complementary because the mitochondria provides the carbon dioxide and water that the chloroplast needs, and the chloroplast provides the Oxygen and the glucose that the mitochondria needs. So they each create/produce something the other one needs to function and they wouldn't work without the other. Fermentation: (anaerobic respiration) happens when there is a lack of oxygen in the cytosol, and there are two main types: ethanol and lactic acid. (Soy sauce, cheese and yogurt). Can make up to 2 ATP. Types of Fermentation Lactic Fermentation Alcoholic Fermentation Final Product Lactic Acid and 2 ATP Ethanol and 2 CO2 - Lactic Acid: can cause cramps and muscle soreness. Respiration: (aerobic respiration) happens when there is a presence of oxygen, when glucose and oxygen are converted into ATP, and can make up to 36 ATP. - After glycolysis pyruvic acid is produced. ATP CYCLE:  Marina Chavez True or False T During chemosynthesis, organisms use energy stored in certain molecules to make glucose. F We are open systems to matter and energy because we cannot make photosynthesis. F Yeast is used to bake bread, because yeast consume O2, causing bread to rise. T ATP is the nucleotide of high energy of the living organisms. Chlorophyll “A” and “B”: is in charge of absorbing blue and red light, and reflecting green. Calvin Cycle: uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the light reactions to make carbohydrates. - Is good for the environment because it reduces the CO2 levels, produces oxygen, balances gasses and provides food for plants. Krebs Cycle: is a chain of reactions occurring in the mitochondria, through which almost all living cells produce energy in aerobic respiration. - Products: 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, 1 ATP, 2 CO₂, coenzyme A. FADH2 & NADH: work to move electrons from one side to the other. Photosynthesis: Process by which plants, algae and some bacteria can absorb the energy of light to convert it into chemical energy that will be used to synthesize carbohydrates and carbon dioxide. - Can be done by algae, plants and bacteria. - 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6 H12 06 + 6O2 Light dependent reactions: occurs in the chloroplast, light is captured and water is stored, they later produce ATP and NADPH. Light independent reactions: happen in the chloroplast, carbon dioxide enters through the pores of stomata, it’s changed into something unusable, that is used as energy in the calvin cycle. NADPH adds electrons; to make glucose. Glycolysis: takes place in the cytoplasm, and is anaerobic because it does not require oxygen, in this process sugar is converted into pyruvate. - Produces 2 pyruvate molecules. That can become either 2 ethanol molecules or 2 lactate molecules. It starts with 2 ADP and turns into 2 ATP. Electron Transport Chain: electrons are transported from the NADH and FADH2 to protein complexes in the electron carriers, to make a protein gradient, they are pumped through the ATP synthase which creates ATP. Energy Conversion ( from light energy to chemical energy): light is absorbed by the chlorophyll, exciting electrons that are later transferred to electron acceptors, creating a proton gradient and the NADPH is then used to turn CO2 into glucose.  Marina Chavez Third Period Genome: is all the DNA contained in an organism or cell, which includes all the chromosomes plus the DNA in the mitochondria. Alleles: the different versions a gene can present itself in a population. - What gives direction to the DNA strand are carbons number 5 and number 3 of the sugar (molecule). Gene: section of DNA that encodes for a specific protein. - Locus: indicates the location of a gene in a chromosome. Karyotype: is a laboratory technique that produces an image of an individual’s chromosomes. - Histones are proteins that enroll DNA to make chromatin. - Sister chromatids are identical copies of the homologous chromosomes. - Watson and Crick discovered DNA structure. Genomes Prokaryotic Genome Eukaryotic Genome Single cell Single or multi cell No nucleus Nucleus One circular DNA + Plasmid Chromosomes + mtDNA + cpDNA in plants Chromosomal Theory: that chromosomes carry the unit of heredity (genes). - Examples: down syndrome and the fruit flies experiment. Endosymbiotic Theory: states how mitochondria and chloroplast have their own DNA so they were once their own organism. DNA is transcripted into RNA and RNA is translated into proteins (you). Horizontal gene transfer: the passing of genes from routes other than parent to child, bacterial conjugation, virus reproduction.  Marina Chavez Vertical gene transfer: passing down of genes from parent to offspring. - These happen thanks to plasmids and can give us antibiotic resistance. DNA base pairs, with direction, leading and lagging strand 5’ - T A C G T G - 3’ Leading strand 3’ - A T G C A C - 5’ Lagging strand Schematic drawing of base pairs with nucleotide, phosphate group, sugar, nitrogenous base and direction. Semiconservative replication process: it is semiconservative because when the new strand is formed, it still contains a piece from the original strand. - The primers are sequence of RNA that is made the RNA primase. mRNA: carries genetic instructions from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis.  Marina Chavez tRNA: brings amino acids to ribosomes and matches them to mRNA codons during protein synthesis. Codon: group of three nucleotides in mRNA that tell the cell which amino acid to add to a protein or when to stop building a protein. DNA polymerase: is in charge of adding the nitrogenous base where the primer indicates. DNA ligase: seals out fragments of DNA, creating the double strand. Exonuclease: removes RNA nitrogenous bases, leaving only DNA. Okazaki fragments: chunks of DNA in the complementary strand.