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CHAPTER 2: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)] - how blood flows within the brain when children or Development adults d...

CHAPTER 2: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)] - how blood flows within the brain when children or Development adults do different cognitive tasks. - certain changes that occur in human beings (or animals) between conception and death. Event-Related Potential (ERP) - assess electrical activity of the brain through the Physical development skull or scalp as people perform activities such as - changes in the body reading or learning vocabulary words Personal development Positron Emission Tomography (PET) - changes in an individual’s personality. - scans can track brain activity under different conditions Social development - changes in the way an individual relates The Developing Brain: Neurons to others. Neurons Cognitive development - Gray matter - changes in thinking, reasoning, and - Share information by sending electrical signals decision making and by releasing chemicals that jump across synapses Maturation - changes that occur naturally and spontaneously Axons and that are, to a large extent, genetically - transmit information out to muscles, glands, or programmed. other neurons Nature Dendrites - Heredity, genes, biological processes - receive information and transmit it to the neuron cells themselves Nurture - Environmental contexts Synapses - tiny spaces between them Continuous - Gradual improvement Synaptic Plasticity - Connections between neurons become stronger Discontinuous Change with use or practice and weaker when not used - Qualitative - changes in humans At birth, each of the child’s 100 to 200 billion neurons has about 2,500 synapses. General Principles of Development However, the fibers that reach out from the neurons and 1) People develop at different rates. the synapses between the fiber ends increase during the - Some students will be larger, better first years of life, perhaps into adolescence or longer. coordinated, or more mature in their thinking and social relationships. Others By ages 2 to 3, each neuron has around 15,000 synapses; will be much slower to mature in these children this age have many more synapses than they will areas. have as adults. 2) Development is relatively orderly. In fact, they are oversupplied with the neurons and - People develop abilities in a logical order. synapses that they will need to adapt to their In infancy, they sit before they walk. environments. 3) Development takes place gradually. However, only those neurons that are used will survive, - change is likely to take time and unused neurons will be “pruned.” This pruning is necessary and supports cognitive development. The Brain and Cognitive Development Researchers have found that some developmental Cerebellum disabilities are associated with a gene defect that - Balance and smooth skilled movements interferes with pruning - Higher cognitive function such as learning Two kinds of overproduction and pruning processes Hippocampus - recalling new information and recent experiences Experience-expectant - synapses are overproduced in certain Amygdala parts of the brain during specific - Directs emotions developmental periods, awaiting (expecting) stimulation Thalamus - general development in large areas of the - Ability to learn new information, particularly verbal brain  - explain why adults have difficulty with How the Brain Works pronunciations that are not part of their - Thanks to plasticity, the brain is ever changing, native language shaped by activity, culture, and context. - We build knowledge as we do things, as we Experience-dependent manipulate objects and ideas mentally and - synaptic connections are formed based physically. on the individual’s experiences - New synapses are formed in response to The Brain and Learning to Read neural activity in very localized areas of - Reading is not innate or automatic—every brain the brain has to be taught to read. - The brain does not “expect” these behaviors, so new synapses form Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development stimulated by these experiences. Again, - how humans go about making sense of their world more synapses are produced than will be by gathering and organizing information kept after “pruning.” Influences on Development Glial Cells - Cognitive development, according to Piaget, is our - White matter of the brain thinking processes change radically, though - fighting infections slowly, from birth to maturity because we - controlling blood flow and communication among constantly strive to make sense of the world. neurons - providing the myelin coating around axon fibers Influences on Development Myelination Maturation - The coating of the axon fibers with any insulation - unfolding of the biological changes that are fatty glial covering, influences thinking and genetically programmed learning Activity The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex - ability to act on the environment and learn from it Cerebral Cortex Social Transmission - Outer ⅛ inch-thick covering - learning from others - Largest area of the brain - Contains the greatest number of neurons Basic Tendencies in Thinking - Allows the greatest human accomplishments such as complex problem solving and language Organization - Last part of the brain to develop - People are born with a tendency to organize their thinking processes into Cortex is divided into different areas or lobes: psychological structures. (schemes) Schemes Frontal Lobe - basic building blocks of thinking - higher-order thinking processes - allow us to mentally represent or “think about” the objects and events in our Parietal Lobe world. - Processes your sense of touch - Understanding of the world around Adaptation - people also inherit the tendency to adapt Occipital Lobe to their environment. - Visuospatial processing Two basic processes are involved in adaptation: Temporal Lobe assimilation and accommodation - play major roles in emotions, judgment, and language do not develop fully until the Assimilation high school years and maybe later. - when we use our existing schemes to make sense of events in our world. Lateralization - specialization of the two hemispheres of the brain Accomodation - We know that each half of the brain controls the - we must change existing schemes to opposite side of the body. Damage to the right respond to a new situation side of the brain will affect movement of the left - We adjust our thinking to fit the new side of the body and vice versa information, instead of adjusting the information to fit our thinking. Adolescent Development and the Brain - The brain continues to develop throughout Equilibration childhood and adolescence. - the act of searching for a balance - Adolescents may “seem” like adults, at least in low-stress situations, but their brains are not mature. Four Stages of Cognitive Development changed, as long as nothing is added and nothing is taken away Sensorimotor Stage Infancy Centering - 0–2 years - Can consider more than one aspect of the - Learns through reflexes, senses, and situation at a time movement—actions on the environment. - Begins to imitate others and remember events; Decentering shifts to symbolic thinking. - difficulty considering more than one aspect of the - Comes to understand that objects do not cease to situation at a time exist when they are out of sight—object permanence. Egocentric - Moves from reflexive actions to intentional activity. - to see the world and the experiences of others from their own viewpoint Preoperational Stage Early Childhood to the Early Elementary Years CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE - child starts talking, to about 7 years old - Develops language and begins to use symbols to Identity represent objects. - the student knows that if nothing is added or taken - Has difficulty with the past and future—thinks in away, the material remains the same the present. - Can think through operations logically in one Compensation direction. - an apparent change in one direction can be - Has difficulties understanding the point of view of compensated for by a change in another direction another person Reversibility Concrete-Operational Stage - can mentally cancel out the change that has been Later Elementary to Middle School Years made. - first grade to around 11 years old - Can think logically about concrete (hands-on) Classification problems. - focus on a single characteristic of objects in a set - Understands conservation and organizes things and group the objects according to that into categories and in series. characteristic - Can reverse thinking to mentally “undo” actions. - Understands past, present, and future. Seriation - process of making an orderly arrangement from Formal Operations large to small or vice versa High School and College - Can think hypothetically and deductively. Thinking FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE becomes more scientific. - Solves abstract problems in logical fashion. Adolescent egocentrism - Can consider multiple perspectives and develops - adolescents do not deny that other people may concerns about social issues, personal identity, have different perceptions and beliefs; the and justice. adolescents just become very focused on their own ideas. INFANCY: SENSORIMOTOR STAGE Imaginary Audience Object permanence - feeling that everyone is watching - objects exist in the environment whether they perceive them or not Executive Functioning - all those processes that we use to organize, Goal-directed actions coordinate, and perform goal-directed, intentional - Learning to reverse actions is a basic actions accomplishment of the sensorimotor stage - focusing attention, inhibiting impulsive responses, making and changing plans, and using memory to PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE hold and manipulate information Semiotic Function Neo-Piagetian theories - ability to work with symbols to represent an object - retain Piaget’s insights about children’s that is not present construction of knowledge and the general trends in children’s thinking but add findings from information processing theories about the role of Reversible Thinking attention, memory, and strategies - “think backward,” or imagine how to reverse the steps in a task Limitations of Jean Piaget’s Theory - One problem with the stage model is the lack of Conservation consistency in children’s thinking. - the amount or number of something remains the - The processes may be more continuous than they same even if the arrangement or appearance is seem. Changes may seem like discontinuous,  qualitative leaps when we look across longer time periods. Socialized speech - Piaget’s theory does not explain how even young - Learn to listen and exchange or argue children can perform at an advanced level ideas - in certain areas where they have highly developed knowledge and expertise. Vygotsky - Piaget argued that the development of cognitive - rather than being a sign of cognitive immaturity, operations such as conservation or abstract these mutterings play an important role in thinking cannot be accelerated. He believed that cognitive development because they move children had to be developmentally ready to learn. children in stages toward self-regulation Catastrophe theory Self-regulation - Changes that appear suddenly - ability to plan, monitor, and guide your - are preceded by many slowly developing changes own thinking and problem solving. such as gradual, continuous corrosion of the metal structures The Zone of Proximal Development - area between the child’s current performance (the Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective problems the child can solve independently - believed that human activities take place in without any support) and the level of performance cultural settings and that they cannot be understood apart from these settings. Scaffolding - our specific mental structures and processes can - an adult uses verbal prompts and structuring to be traced to our interactions with others help a child solve a problem or accomplish a task - These social interactions are more than simple influences on cognitive development—they Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory actually create our cognitive structures and - it consists mostly of general ideas; Vygotsky died thinking processes before he could expand and elaborate on his ideas and pursue his research Sociocultural Theory - did not have time to detail the applications of his - Also called sociohistoric theories for teaching, even though he was very - Lev Semenovich Vygotsky interested in instruction - Died at age 38 in 1934 - It is clear that some of his concepts, like ZPD, - Tuberculosis have been misrepresented at times The Social Sources of Individual Thinking Co-constructed processes - internalized by the child and become part of that child’s cognitive development - For example, children first use language in activities with others, to regulate the behavior of the others Both Piaget and Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interactions in cognitive development, but Piaget saw a different role for interaction. Piaget - believed that the most helpful interactions were those between peers, because peers are on an equal basis and can challenge each other’s thinking Vygotsky - children’s cognitive development is fostered by interactions with people who are more capable or advanced in their thinking—people such as parents and teachers Private Speech Piaget - young children can’t see the world through the eyes of others, so they chat away without taking into account the needs or interests of their listeners. Collective monologue - talks enthusiastically, without any real interaction or conversation. CHAPTER 3: THE SELF, SOCIAL, AND MORAL Early and Later Maturing DEVELOPMENT PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT - For girls, maturing way ahead of classmates can be a definite disadvantage. Physical And Motor Development - Being larger and more developed than everyone else, your age is not a valued characteristic for Young Children girls in many cultures. Gross-Motor Skills Early maturation in girls - use of large muscles that enables child to - associated with emotional difficulties such as run, walk, jump, climb, hop. depression, anxiety, lower achievement in school, - Mostly this skill manifested during their drug and alcohol abuse, unplanned pregnancy, third year, but these activities are not well suicide, greater risk of breast cancer in later life, controlled until age 4 to 5. eating disorders. - Between ages 2 and about 4 and 5, - Social influences are powerful factors affecting preschooler’s muscles grow stronger, their girls too. brain develops to better integrate - Use of drug and alcohol, early dating is some information about movements, their examples of it. balance improves, and their center of gravity moves slower, so they are able to Early maturation for males run, jump, hop. - associated with popularity - first develop to male children. - They are taller, broad-shoulder types. - Late Maturing boys experience low self-esteem. Fine-Motor Skills - tend to engage in more delinquent behavior, - such as tying of shoes and fastening of greater risk for depression, victimization by bullies, buttons, requires coordination of small eating disorder, early sexual activity and abusing movements. alcohol, illicit drugs, and cigarettes. - During this time, children will begin to - Some studies show that late-mature boys tend to develop a lifelong preference for their right be more creative, tolerant and perceptive. or left hand. - By age 5, 90% of the students prefer their Guidelines: Dealing With Physical Differences In The right hand, and 10% prefers left hand. Classroom Address students’ physical differences in ways Handedness that do not call unnecessary attention to the - a genetically based preference, so don’t variation. try to make children switch. Help students obtain factual information on differences in physical development. Elementary School Years Accept that concerns about appearance and the - Physical development is fairly steady. They opposite sex will occupy much time and energy for become taller, leaner, and stronger so they are adolescents. better able to master sports and games. - Many girls are likely to be as large as or larger Play, Recess, and Physical Activity than boys in their class. - Between 11-14, on average, taller and heavier Maria Montessori than boys of the same age. - “Play is children’s work.” - The size discrepancy give girls advantage in physical activities but they may conflict about it as Play they may downplay their physical activities. - essential to development because it contributes to the cognitive, physical, social and emotional Adolescent Years well-being of children and youth. - Puberty marks the beginning of sexual maturity. There are a series of changes involving almost 1) Cultural Differences in Play every part of the body, but these changes take - Some country mother playing with their time. children is more important than to let them play alone with their sibling and peers. In Girls some culture, children spend more time Age 10: growth of nipples and budding their breast helping with chores and less time in Age 12 and 13: first menstruation (called solitary or group play. menarche) but age ranges from Age 10 to 16 ½ Age 15 or 16: reach final height. 2) Exercise and Recess Age 25: continue to grow slightly till age 25. - Physical activities and participation in athletics has benefits for all students’ Boys well-being, leadership skills, and their Age 10: testes and scrotum begin to grow larger social relationships. Ages12 to 14: first ejaculation (called spermarche) - Schools have a role in promoting active Age 18 or 19: develop facial hair and reach their play. final beard Age 19: height continues to grow and continues Philip Tomporowski slightly till age 25. - systematic exercise programs may actually enhance the development of specific types of mental processing known  to be important for meeting challenges Don’t ignore warning signs if your students start to show encountered both in academics and some signs and symptoms. As a teacher, you are the one throughout the lifespan. who begins the chain of help for students with this kind of disorder. 3) Physical Activity and Students with Disabilities Urie Bronfrenbrenner’s - Recess is important for students with The Social Context For Development ADHD - Federal laws state that students in all The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model grades have equal opportunity to participate alongside their peers in 1. Students do not learn alone but rather in after-school athletics and clubs. Schools collaboration with their teachers, in the company are expected to provide reasonable of their peers, and with the encouragement of their accommodation for students with families. disabilities. 2. Context: total situation that surrounds and interacts with an individual’s thought, feelings, and Challenges in Physical Development action shape development and learning. Physical development is public. 3. Contexts influences the development of Adolescents may feel they are “on stage” behaviors, beliefs, and knowledge by providing Physical development also has psychological resources,supports, incentives and punishments, consequences. expectations, teachers, models, tools – all building blocks of learning and development. 1) Obesity - Being more than 20% heavier than Bioecological Model average compared to others of the same - recognizes the physical and social contexts in age, sex, and body build. which we develop ecosystems because they are - This is particularly high among children constantly interacting with and influencing each from low-income families. other. - Consequences of obesity are serious: diabetes, strain on bones and joints, Microsystem respiratory problems, and greater chance - composed of immediate family, friends, of heart problems as adults and targets of neighborhood, teachers. cruel teasing. - 1 interaction at a time. 2) Eating Disorders Mesosystem - As the child’s body grows and changes, - interaction of 2 or more microsystems. many become more concerned about their appearance. Exosystem - Emphasis on fitness and beauty makes - social setting that do not experience young people even more likely to worry directly but still gives influence to then about how their bodies measure up. development. - social media, extended family, parent’s Two common eating disorders work Anorexia Nervosa Macrosystem - self-starvation - cultural or societal contexts Bulimia Chronosystem - binge eating followed by purging, fasting - people and their environment and or excessive exercise relations between the two change over time. Another type of eating disorder: - ex. Historical events Binge Eating Families - person binge-eats anytime of the day 1. The first context for child development is the - feels guilt but will do nothing about it. mother’s womb. 2. The influences of the family begin before birth, but Eating disorders many new influences follow. - It is becoming more common, sometimes encouraged and supported by pro-ana Family Structure (pro-anorexia) and proima (pro-bulimia) social - About 10% of children have parents who never networks, blogs, and Web sites. married, and most of these children (89%) live with their mothers. They are militant in their support of the choice. Blended Families They provide counseling, motivational statement, social - children live with their stepbrother or support and a sense of belonging to a special group that stepsister who move in and out of their understands them and combats feelings of isolation and lives. loneliness.  Extended Families - children are more likely to grow up with their grandparents, aunt, uncles and cousins. There are also several gays and lesbian parents. The best advice is to avoid the phrases “your parents” and “your mother and father” and instead to speak of “your family” when talking to students. Parenting Styles - By Diane Baumrind, she identify four parenting styles based on the parents’ high or low levels of warmth and control. Authoritative Parents - high warmth, high control; set clear limits, enforce rules, and expect mature behavior. - they listen to concerns, give reason for rules, and allow democratic decision making. Authoritarian Parents - low warmth, high control; seem cold and controlling. - Expecting their children to be mature and do what their parents say. - They love their children but are not openly affectionate. Permissive Parents - high warmth, low control; are warm and nurturing but they have a few rules or consequences. Rejecting/Neglecting/Uninvolved Parents - low warmth, low control; doesn’t seem to care at all and can’t be bothered with controlling, communicating, or teaching their children.