Early Childhood Development PDF

CHAPTERS 8-10 EARLY CHILDHOOD  BIOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 8 BODY CHANGES Growth Patterns Children become slimmer as the lower body lengthens. From age 2 through 6, each year well-nourished children add almost 3 inches in height and gain about 4-1/2 pounds in weight. BMI is...

CHAPTERS 8-10 EARLY CHILDHOOD  BIOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 8 BODY CHANGES Growth Patterns Children become slimmer as the lower body lengthens. From age 2 through 6, each year well-nourished children add almost 3 inches in height and gain about 4-1/2 pounds in weight. BMI is lower at ages 5 and 6 than any other time. NUTRITION Obesity among Young Children Childhood obesity is one of the most serious public health challenges of the twenty-first century. As family income decreases, both malnutrition and obesity increase. Obesity is a sign of poor nutrition. Parents of overweight children underestimate children’s weight. Some improvements have occurred in young children’s diets and day-care activities. BRAIN GROWTH Size By age 2, a child's brain weighs 75 percent of its adult weight. Social understanding develops as the prefrontal cortex matures and emotional control improves. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Primary reason for faster thinking is new and extensive myelination. Myelin is a fatty coating on the axons that speeds signals between neurons. A gradual increase in myelination makes 5-year-olds much quicker than 3-year-olds, who are quicker than toddlers. CONNECTING THE HEMISPHERES Corpus callosum Long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and allows communication between them Lateralization Specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa. CONNECTED HEMISPHERES Contemporary views on left–right distinction Distinction exaggerated No exclusive sidedness in healthy people Both sides of brain involved in almost every skill Brain is flexible, especially in early life  BRAIN DEVELOPMENT - PLANNING AND ANALYZING IMPULSIVENESS & PERSEVERATION Maturation of prefrontal cortex Maturation of the prefrontal cortex Between ages 2 and 6, neurological increases gradually facilitates: are especially notable in the areas of the Focused attention cortex, where planning, thinking, social Impulsiveness awareness, and language occur. Neurological immaturity is another reason adults need to prevent childhood injury. GROSS MOTOR SKILLS Specific skills Brain maturation, motivation, and guided practice make gross motor skills possible. Influence of culture, urbanization, and locale is important.  FINE MOTOR SKILLS Fine motor skills Are more difficult to master Involve small hand and finger movements Often involve both sides of the brain Are influenced by practice and maturation On average, mature 6 months earlier in females ARTISTIC EXPRESSION All forms of artistic expression Blossom during early childhood In every artistic domain Skill gradually comes with practice and maturation Correlated with later creative drawing Adult encouragement, child practice, and developing technical skill Cultural context Influence expression INJURIES AND ABUSE Avoidable injury In almost all families of every income, ethnicity, and nation, parents want to protect their children while fostering their growth. In every nation, more young children die from accidents than from any other specific cause. The 2- to 6-year-olds in the United States are at greater risk than slightly older children.  INJURY CONTROL Age-related dangers Injury control (harm Falls reduction) Motor-vehicle deaths Safety surfaces Poison Car seats Fire Bike helmets Drowning Safety containers for medications Pool monitoring PREVENTION Two types of analysis to predict danger and prevent it Dynamic-systems or ecological approach Statistical analysis Levels of injury prevention Primary prevention Secondary prevention Tertiary prevention (golden hour) ELIMINATING LEAD Toxic shrinkage A composite of 157 brains of adults— who, as children, had high lead levels in their blood—shows reduced volume. The red and yellow hot spots are all areas that are smaller than areas in a normal brain. CHILD MALTREATMENT (1) Maltreatment noticed and defined Child maltreatment Intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of anyone under 18 years of age Child abuse Deliberate action that is harmful to a child's physical, emotional, or sexual well-being Child neglect Failure to meet a child's basic physical, educational, or emotional needs CHILD MALTREATMENT (2) Maltreatment noticed and defined Reported maltreatment Harm or endangerment about which someone has notified the authorities Substantiated maltreatment Harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated, and verified SUBSTANTIATED CHILD MALTREATMENT FREQUENCY OF MALTREATMENT Reports of substantiated maltreatment increased from 1950 to 1990 but decreased thereafter. Physical and sexual abuse declined, but neglect did not. WHY? Fewer homes with many small children Variation in level of professional scrutiny related to abuse Few children report their own abuse. Maltreatment may be underreported. Most maltreatment occurs early in life. RATES OF SUBSTANTIATED CHILD MALTREATMENT SIGNS OF CHILD MALTREATMENT Injuries that are unlikely to be accidents, such as bruises on both sides of the face or body; burns with a clear line between burned and unburned skin Repeated injuries, especially broken bones not properly tended (visible on X- ray) Fantasy play with dominant themes of violence or sex Slow physical growth Unusual appetite or lack of appetite Ongoing physical complaints, such as stomachaches, headaches, genital pain, sleepiness Reluctance to talk, to play, or to move, especially if development is slow No close friendships; hostility toward others; bullying of smaller children Hypervigilance, with quick, impulsive reactions, such as cringing, startling, or hitting Frequent absence from school Frequent change of address Frequent change in caregivers Child seems fearful, not joyful, on seeing caregiver POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD) PTSD Anxiety disorder that develops as a delayed reaction to having experienced or witnessed a profoundly shocking or frightening event Symptoms May include flashbacks to the event, hyperactivity and hypervigilance, displaced anger, sleeplessness, nightmares between fantasy and reality CONSEQUENCES OF MALTREATMENT Effects of maltreatment are devastating and long-lasting Mistreated and neglected children Regard people as hostile and exploitative Are less friendly, more aggressive, and more isolated than other children Experience greater social deficits May experience large and enduring economic consequences PREVENTING HARM Three levels of prevention Primary prevention: Focus on macrosystem and exosystem; stable neighborhood, family cohesion, decreasing financial instability, family isolation, and teenage parenthood Secondary prevention: Focus on identifying and intervening; insecure attachment Tertiary prevention: Focus on limiting harm after maltreatment TERTIARY PREVENTION AND PLACEMENT Permanency planning Foster care Kinship care Adoption Do you know the difference?  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 9 EXECUTIVE FUNCTION Executive function The cognitive ability to organize and prioritize the many thoughts that arise from the various parts of the brain, allowing the person to anticipate, strategize, and plan behavior Combines three essential abilities: memory, inhibition, and flexibility A SENSITIVE TIME Compared to older children, 2- to 6-year-olds are more open to learning, have much to learn, and are open to suggestion. Executive function skills are foundational. Executive function skills are not inborn. Many cognitive psychologists now focus on executive function, particularly on efforts to improve it during early childhood. THINKING DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD (1) Piaget Preoperational intelligence Cognitive development between the ages of about 2 and 6 Includes language and imagination Suggests logical, operational thinking is not yet possible at this stage THINKING DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD (2) Piaget Symbolic thought Major accomplishment of preoperational intelligence Allows a child to think symbolically, including understanding that words can refer to things not seen and that an item can symbolize something else Helps explain animism PIAGET: PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT (1) Animism Involves belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive Is related to egocentric reasoning May be involved with rational as well as irrational ideas PIAGET: PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT (2) Obstacles to logic Centration Includes characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child focuses (centers) on one idea, excluding all others; may include egocentrism Focus on appearance Characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent PIAGET: PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT (3) Static reasoning Characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing changes. Whatever is now has always been and always will be. Irreversibility Characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred. PIAGET: PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT (4) Conservation and logic Conservation Principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) when its appearance changes. PIAGET: PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT (PART 5) All characteristics of preoperational thought are evident in classic conservation task errors. Young children fail to understand conservation of liquids because they focus (center) on what they see (appearance), noticing only the immediate (static) condition. It does not occur to them that they could reverse the process and re-create the liquid’s level of a moment earlier (irreversibility). PIAGET: PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT (PART 6) VYGOTSKY: SOCIAL LEARNING (1) Vygotsky: Social learning Every aspect of children's cognitive development is embedded in the social context. Apprentice in thinking Someone whose intellectual growth is stimulated and directed by older, more skilled members of society Mentors Present challenges Offer assistance (without taking over) Add crucial information Encourage motivation VYGOTSKY: SOCIAL LEARNING (2) Guided participation Process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Skills that a person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently Scaffolding Temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process VYGOTSKY: SOCIAL LEARNING (3) Overimitation Tendency of children to copy an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned Common among 2- to 6-year-olds when they imitate adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient Universal trait of young, socially motivated children VYGOTSKY: LANGUAGE AS A TOOL Words are the mediator between brain potential and comprehension. Language advances thinking. Internal dialogue or private speech Social mediation STEM curricula Executive function development STEM LEARNING A practical use of Vygotsky’s theory concerns STEM (science, technology, engineering, math) education. Developmentalists find that a person’s interest in such vocations begins with learning about numbers and science (counting, shapes, fractions, molecular structure, the laws of motion) in early childhood. If, as Vygotsky believed, words mediate between brain potential and comprehension, STEM education begins long before formal education. BRAIN AND CONTEXT What strengthens theory of mind in young children? A child’s ability to develop theories correlates with the maturity of the prefrontal cortex and with advances in executive processing. Context and experience are relevant. Context and culture matter.  LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT LANGUAGE LEARNING (1) Language is pivotal to every kind of cognition in early childhood. Early childhood is a sensitive period (or best time) to master vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. The average child knows about 500 words at age 2 and more than 10,000 at age 6. Comprehension is always greater than production. LANGUAGE LEARNING (2) Vocabulary explosion Vocabulary builds quickly and comprehension is greater than production. Verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, and many nouns are mastered. Fast-mapping Speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning WORDS AND THE LIMITS OF LOGIC Logical extension Closely related to fast-mapping Occurs when children use words to describe other objects in same category LANGUAGE LEARNING (3) Acquiring grammar Grammar of a language Structures, techniques, and rules that communicate meaning Word order and word repetition, prefixes and suffixes, intonation and emphasis Overregularization Application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur Makes language seem more “regular" than it actually is PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 10 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1) Emotional regulation Ability to control when and how emotions are expressed Possibly due to connections between limbic system and prefrontal cortex Most important psychosocial accomplishment between ages 2 and 6 Effortful control Ability to regulate one’s emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (2) Initiative versus guilt Erikson's third psychosocial crisis Children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them. Guilt Self-blame that people experience when they do something wrong Shame People’s feeling that others blame them, disapprove of them, or are disappointed in them EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (3) Self-concept A person’s understanding of who he or she is, incorporating self-esteem, physical appearance, personality, and various personal traits Connected to parental confirmation Protective optimism Young children are not realistic (Erikson). They believe they are strong, smart, attractive, and able to achieve any goals. Confidence in self helps young children to persist. BRAIN MATURATION Neurological advances Growth of prefrontal cortex at about age 4 or 5 Myelination of the limbic system Improved behaviors and abilities Longer attention span Improved capacity for self-control Social awareness and self-concept become stronger. FACTORS RELATED TO EMOTIONAL REGULATION Maturation matters. Learning matters. Culture matters. EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: MOTIVATION Intrinsic motivation Drive, or reason to pursue a goal Comes from inside a person (e.g., need to feel smart or competent) Seen when children invent imaginary friends Extrinsic motivation Drive, or reason to pursue a goal Arises from the need to have achievements rewarded from outside (e.g., by receiving material possessions or another person's esteem) MOTIVATION Imaginary friends Make-believe friends who exist only in a child’s imagination Increasingly common from ages 3 through 7 They combat loneliness and aid emotional regulation. Example of intrinsic motivation PLAY Play is universal and timeless. Play is the most productive and enjoyable activity that children undertake. Increasingly complex social play is due to brain maturation coupled with many hours of social play. Form of play changes with age and culture. PLAYMATES Specifics vary, but play with peers is one of the most important areas in which children develop positive social skills. Playmates are people of about the same age and social status. Playmates provide practice in emotional regulation, empathy, and social understanding. Playmates are preferred play partners over parents. TYPES OF SOCIAL PLAY: PARTEN (1932) Solitary play: A child plays alone, Associative play: Children interact, unaware of any other children playing observing each other and sharing nearby. material, but their play is not yet mutual and reciprocal. Onlooker play: A child watches other children play. Cooperative play: Children play together, creating and elaborating a joint activity or taking turns. Parallel play: Children play with similar toys in similar ways, but not together. ACTIVE PLAY Rough-and-tumble play Mimics aggression with no intention to harm Contains expressions and gestures signifying that the child is “just pretending” Is particularly common among young males Advances children's social understanding but increases likelihood of injury May positively affect prefrontal cortex development DRAMA AND PRETENDING Sociodramatic play enables children to: Explore and rehearse social rules Learn to explain ideas and persuade playmates Practice emotional regulation Develop self-concept in nonthreatening context SCREEN TIME Many young children are using screens three hours a day, and with far reaching consequences, in obesity, emotional immaturity, intellectual growth. CHALLENGES FOR CAREGIVERS Caregiving styles: Dimensions (Baumrind) Expressions of warmth Strategies for discipline Expectations for maturity Communication BAUMRIND’S STYLES OF CAREGIVING Authoritarian parenting: High behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication Permissive parenting: High nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control Authoritative parenting: Parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children STYLES OF CAREGIVING A fourth style is sometimes mistaken for the permissive style but is actually quite different. Neglectful/uninvolved parenting: Parents are indifferent toward their children and unaware of what is going on in their children’s lives. LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PARENTING STYLE (1) Children of authoritarian parents Become conscientious, obedient, and quiet but not especially happy May feel guilty or depressed and blame themselves when things do not go well May rebel as adolescents and leave home before age 20 LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PARENTING STYLE (2) Children of permissive parents Are unhappy and lack self-control, especially in peer relationships Suffer from inadequate emotional regulation Are immature and lack friendships (main reason for their unhappiness) Tend to continue to live at home, still dependent, in early adulthood LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PARENTING STYLE (3) Children of authoritative parents Are successful, articulate, happy with themselves, and generous with others Are well-liked by teachers and peers, especially in societies in which individual initiative is valued BECOMING BOYS OR GIRLS: SEX AND GENDER Biology determines whether an embryo is male or female. During early childhood, sex patterns and preferences become important to children and apparent to adults. At age 2, children apply gender labels. By age 4, children are convinced that certain toys and roles are “best suited” for one sex or the other. In the United States, sexual stereotypes are obvious and rigid between ages 3 and 6. TEACHING CHILDREN TO BE BOYS AND GIRLS Sex and gender Sex differences: Biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body type Gender differences: Differences in the roles and behaviors of males and females Acceptance of sexual diversity Many preschoolers become rigid in their ideas of male and female. Most older children consider ethnic discrimination immoral, but they accept some sex discrimination. THEORIES OF GENDER-ROLE DEVELOPMENT (1) Psychoanalytic theory Key stages and concepts Phallic stage Oedipus complex Superego Identification THEORIES OF GENDER-ROLE DEVELOPMENT (2) Behaviorism Gender differences Product of ongoing reinforcement and punishment Are learned through all roles, values, and morals “Gender-appropriate” behavior rewarded more frequently than “gender- inappropriate” behavior Social learning theory Children notice the ways men and women behave and internalize the standards they observe. THEORIES OF GENDER-ROLE DEVELOPMENT (3) Cognitive theories Cognitive theory Offers an alternative explanation for the strong gender identity that becomes apparent at about age 5 Gender schema A child’s cognitive concept or general belief about sex differences Based on his or her observations and experiences Young children categorize themselves and everyone else as either male or female, and then they think and behave accordingly. THEORIES OF GENDER-ROLE DEVELOPMENT (4) Sociocultural theory Stresses the importance of cultural values and customs Some cultural aspects are transmitted through the parents, as explained with behaviorism, but much more arises from the larger community. By age 6, children are astute “gender detectives.”  TEACHING RIGHT AND WRONG Emotional regulation development benefits playful interactions. Empathy develops with theory of mind and leads to compassion and prosocial behavior. Prosocial and antisocial behavior are innate and universal. Antisocial behavior generally diminishes over preschool years. Decreased empathy and increased antipathy, impacted by neighborhood and school stress Four general aggression types Instrumental aggression Reactive aggression Relational aggression Bullying aggression