Grade 11 Biology Term 1 Exams Study Guide PDF

**Unit 1: 1.4/1.5/1.6 -- Proteins and Nucleic Acids** **Amino Acids** **Amino acids are linked together by condensation/dehydration to form polypeptides.** - Involves the formation of a [peptide bond] between the amino acids - [Water] is produced **Formation of a peptide bond.** http:/...

**Unit 1: 1.4/1.5/1.6 -- Proteins and Nucleic Acids** **Amino Acids** **Amino acids are linked together by condensation/dehydration to form polypeptides.** - Involves the formation of a [peptide bond] between the amino acids - [Water] is produced **Formation of a peptide bond.** http://3219a2.medialib.glogster.com/media/0e/0e2f346ce614d5b3f9c3e7b46f8e11d2d39f63ffaec27644a4f01733bd435a6f/i11-15-peptide.jpg **Relationship between Amino Acids/ Polypeptides/ Proteins** - There are [20 different amino acids] in polypeptides - The [different "R" groups] are what make the amino acids different and allow the proteins to form a wide array of structures and functions - Some amino acids are [pola]r, others are [non-polar] - Amino acids can be linked together in any sequence giving a [huge range of possible polypeptides]. - The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is [coded for by genes] - Each [3 bases] codes for 1 amino acid in a polypeptide **Q: What are the four levels of proteins?** **[Primary Structure]**: The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids **[Secondary Structure]**: The coils and folds of **secondary structure** result from hydrogen bonds between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone Typical secondary structures are a coil called an **α helix** and a folded structure called a **β pleated sheet** **[Tertiary Structure]**: **Tertiary structure** is determined by interactions between R groups. These interactions between R groups include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, **hydrophobic interactions**, and strong covalent bonds called **disulfide bridges.** **[Quaternary Structure]**: **Quaternary structure** results when two or more polypeptide chains form one macromolecule **[Protein Functions:]** **1. Enzymes** **Example**: *Amylase*, which breaks down starch into sugars during digestion. **2. Transport** **Example**: *Hemoglobin*, a protein in red blood cells, transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues throughout the body. 3\. **Structural Support** **Example**: *Collagen*, found in skin, bones, and connective tissue, provides structural support and strength. 4\. **Storage** **Example**: *Ferritin* stores iron in cells and releases it when needed, especially in the liver and spleen. 5\. **Defense (Immune Response)** **Example**: *Antibodies* (immunoglobulins) are proteins that recognize and neutralize pathogens like bacteria and viruses. 6\. **Hormonal Signaling** **Example**: *Insulin* is a hormone that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating glucose uptake into cells. 7\. **Movement** **Example**: *Actin* and *Myosin* are proteins in muscle fibers that enable muscle contraction and movement. **The Structure of DNA and RNA** **The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides** A nucleotide is made of: 1. A phosphate group. 2. A pentose sugar (Ribose in RNA, Deoxyribose in DNA) 3. A Nitrogenous base - Purines: Adenine, Guanine - Pyrimidine: Thymine, Cytosine (Uracil replaces thymine in RNA)    **DNA Structure** - **double helix** - Made of two **antiparallel** strands of **nucleotides** linked by **hydrogen bonding** between **complementary base pairs**. - Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas guanine forms three hydrogen bonds with cytosine. - A **covalent bond** forms between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of another nucleotide. - The bond is between the phosphate of one nucleotide to the **C3** of the second nucleotide. - The phosphate group creates a bridge connecting C5 on one pentose with the C3 on the next pentose. - At one end there is pentose with 5\' (said \"five prime") carbon which is free from bonding. - At the other end there is a 3\' carbon free from bonding to other nucleotides. **[Unit 2: 2.1-2.2 Cell Ultrastructure and Function]** **[Common Features of ALL Cells:]** 1. **Cell Membrane** 2. **Cytoplasm** 3. **Ribosomes** 4. **Chromosomes** **Prokaryotes** **Draw a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as an example of a prokaryote.**  +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Eukaryotic | **Structure** | **Function** | **Drawing** | | Organelle** | | | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | **Ribosomes** | - Small | Protein | | | | spherical | synthesis | | | | structures | | | | | | | | | | - Do not have | | | | | an exterior | | | | | membrane. | | | | | | | | | | - Consist of | | | | | two | | | | | subunits | | | | | (rRNA+prote | | | | | in) | | | | | | | | | | - Could be of | | | | | two types: | | | | | 70S or 80S | | | | | | | | | | - Found | | | | | either: | | | | | | | | | | \- floating | | | | | free in the | | | | | cytoplasm or | | | | | | | | | | \- attached to | | | | | the surface of | | | | | the rough | | | | | endoplasmic | | | | | reticulum | | | | | | | | | | \- in | | | | | mitochondria | | | | | and | | | | | chloroplast. | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Smooth ER** | Do not have | Production of | | | | ribosomes on | lipids such as: | | | | the surface | | | | | | - Membrane | | | | | phospholipi | | | | | ds | | | | | | | | | | - Sex | | | | | hormones | | | | | such as | | | | | testosteron | | | | | e | | | | | and | | | | | estrogen | | | | | | | | | | Detoxification | | | | | of drugs in the | | | | | liver. | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Rough | Extensive | [Synthesizes]{. | | | endoplasmic | network of | underline} | | | reticulum** | tubules that | proteins and | | | | extend almost | [transport]{.un | | | | everywhere in | derline} | | | | the cell from | them to be then | | | | the nucleus to | excreted from | | | | the plasma | the cell. | | | | membrane. | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Lysosome** | - Spherical | Contains many | | | | organelles | digestive | | | | | enzymes to: | | | | - Arise from | | | | | the Golgi | - Digest | | | | apparatus. | structures | | | | | that are | | | | - Surrounded | not needed | | | | by a single | within the | | | | membrane. | cell (e.g | | | | | dead | | | | - Contain | organelles) | | | | hydrolytic | | | | | enzymes ( | - Hydrolyze | | | | up to 40 | (digest) | | | | types) | macromolecu | | | | | les | | | | | such as | | | | | proteins | | | | | and lipids | | | | | into their | | | | | monomers | | | | | (subunits). | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Golgi | - Consists of | [Processing]{.u | | | apparatus** | flattened | nderline} | | | | sacs, which | of proteins: | | | | are stacked | | | | | on top of | Receives | | | | one | proteins from | | | | another. | the rough ER | | | | | and may further | | | | - One side is | modify them. It | | | | near the | also packages | | | | rough ER, | proteins before | | | | called the | the protein is | | | | *cis* side. | sent to its | | | | This side | final | | | | receives | destination | | | | products | which may be | | | | from ER. | intracellular | | | | | or | | | | - The | extracellular. | | | | opposite | | | | | side is | | | | | called | | | | | *trans* | | | | | side and | | | | | through | | | | | which | | | | | vesicles | | | | | carrying | | | | | modified | | | | | material | | | | | are | | | | | discharged. | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Mitochondrion | - Surrounded | Aerobic | | | ** | by two | respiration; | | | | membranes. | | | | | | conversion of | | | | - The inner | chemical energy | | | | membrane is | of glucose to | | | | folded | ATP | | | | inward to | | | | | provide a | | | | | huge | | | | | surface | | | | | area for | | | | | the | | | | | chemical | | | | | reactions. | | | | | | | | | | - Inside the | | | | | inner | | | | | membrane a | | | | | semi-fluid | | | | | substance | | | | | called | | | | | matrix. | | | | | | | | | | - Produce and | | | | | contain its | | | | | own | | | | | ribosomes | | | | | of 70S | | | | | type. | | | | | | | | | | - Has its own | | | | | DNA similar | | | | | to that in | | | | | bacterial | | | | | cells. | | | | | | | | | | - Found in | | | | | large | | | | | numbers in | | | | | cells that | | | | | have high | | | | | energy | | | | | requirement | | | | | s. | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Nucleus** | - Region | Contains the | | | | containing | chromosomes, | | | | the | the hereditary | | | | chromosomes | material. It is | | | |. | responsible for | | | | | controlling the | | | | - Surrounded | cell. | | | | by a double | | | | | membrane, | | | | | in which | | | | | there are | | | | | pores. | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Chloroplasts* | - Same size | Photosynthesis | | | * | of | / glucose | | | | bacterial | synthesis | | | | cell | | | | | | | | | | - Surrounded | | | | | by two | | | | | membranes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Inside the | | | | | inner | | | | | membrane a | | | | | semi-fluid | | | | | substance | | | | | called | | | | | stroma. | | | | | | | | | | - The | | | | | interior of | | | | | the | | | | | chloroplast | | | | | include | | | | | thylakoids, | | | | | which are | | | | | stacked | | | | | like a pile | | | | | of coins | | | | | and makeup | | | | | grana. | | | | | | | | | | - Produce and | | | | | contain its | | | | | own | | | | | ribosomes | | | | | of 70S | | | | | type. | | | | | | | | | | - Has its own | | | | | DNA similar | | | | | to that in | | | | | bacterial | | | | | cells. | | | | | | | | | | Found in large | | | | | numbers in | | | | | cells that have | | | | | high energy | | | | | requirements. | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Vacuoles** | Storage | - [Store]{.un | | | | organelles | derline} | | | | | food, | | | | Form from the | water, | | | | Golgi | wastes, and | | | | apparatus. | toxins. | | | | | | | | | Membrane-bound | - Allow an | | | | | uptake of | | | | | water that | | | | | provides | | | | | rigidity | | | | | for the | | | | | plant cell. | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **Endomembrane System -- Video ([Link here](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fyF3q-3WzQA))** **\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--**