Government 1&2 PDF

**GROUP 1** **A. NATURE AND SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS** **1.) The Study of Comparative Government and Politics** Comparative government is the study of how different countries and their governments work. It involves comparing different political systems, such as democracies and...

**GROUP 1** **A. NATURE AND SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS** **1.) The Study of Comparative Government and Politics** Comparative government is the study of how different countries and their governments work. It involves comparing different political systems, such as democracies and monarchies, to understand their similarities and differences. Comparative politics about comparing various political systems and different constitutions among different countries through time. **ORIGIN OF POLITICS** Polis-city-state Polites citizens Politikos-government officials (Zalde, 1983) The Greeks formulated the word politics during the 4th and 5th century. This concept of politics may be as old as the first organization created by man. **POLIS (CITY-STATE)** A city-state is a small, independent area that includes a city and the land around it. Its main characteristics are that it has its own government, makes its own laws, and has clear boundaries that separate it from other areas. The city is where most of the important activities, like politics, business, and culture, happen. Aristotle asserts that all communities aim at some good. The state (polis), by which he means a city-state such as Athens, is the highest kind of community, aiming at the highest of goods. **Politics is\...** Exercise of power, making of political decisions, practice of deception, and manipulation, exercise of authority, allocation of limited resources. Concepts in politics such as the concept of justice (what and who is morally right and politically right), power (source of authority), the right types of constitutions and governments (different types of governments and states), political structures (ideologies in a state), and the right and virtuos leadership (who should lead the political system). **POLITICS AS AN ART OF GOVERNMENT** Politics is what defines the activities of the government and of the state. All government officials and all those working in the government are working are participating in politics. **POLITICS AS PUBLIC AFFAIR** Politics is played by everybody, politicians or not. Aristotle said that \"man by nature is a political animal\" this means that it is only through political community that human beings live a good life. Politics became necessary to build a just society. **POLITICS AS COMPROMISE AND CONSENSUS** Politics is meant to resolve conflict. In politics, compromise, conciliation and negotiation is become necessary. It is only through this means that issues and problems are being resolved. **POLITICS AS POWER** Politics is happen in all human interaction; within a family, among friends, officemates, etc. among Politics can, therefore, be seen as struggle over scarce resources and power can be seen as the means through which struggle is conducted. **POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE** While politics deals with power in society in general, governance, specifically deals with power in government how this institution exerts power for the benefit of the society. According to Aristotle and Plato, humans are not self-sufficing so they find the need to come together as a community. From this union comes the need for politics and governance to maintain order within a society. **2.) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NATION & STATE** **MEANING OF STATE** A state is a community of persons more, or less numerous permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience and enjoying freedom from external control. **THE CONCEPT OF NATION** A nation is a group of people bound together by certain characteristics and shares the same history, ancestry, culture and language. **SOVEREIGNTY** Sovereignty It is a power of the state to enforce the law. over its people within its jurisdiction and demand obedience for them. **KINDS OF SOVEREIGNTY** Internal Sovereignty the power of the state command authority within its jurisdiction. External Sovereignty the power and freedom of the state to carry out its activities outside of the country without the foreign domination or control. **3.) ELEMENTS OF THE STATE** **PEOPLE** People are the individuals who live within the state\'s territory. They are the citizens or residents who are affected by and participate in the state\'s government and laws. The people of a state make decisions, follow laws, and contribute to the state\'s society and economy. **TERRITORY** An area of land, or sometimes sea, that is considered as belonging to or connected with a particular country or person Territory is a specific land and geographical area that state governs. This includes the boundaries, natural resources and bodies of water within those limits. **GOVERNMENT** Is defined as the group of people with the authority to govern a country or state, a particular ministry in office. It is the instrument of the state through which the will of the people is expressed, carried out, and formulated. On the other hand, governance is defined as the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented. As an institution, it is the government which concretizes the policies and addresses the problem of the state. Good governance spring up when the government involves the people in its agenda and the process of policy making. **SOVEREIGNTY** Sovereignty is the right of a country to rule itself. It means the country can make its own laws and decisions. It also means no other country can interfere with how it governs. Sovereignty allows a nation to manage its own affairs. independently. **POLICE POWER** This is the power vested in the Legislature by the Constitution to make, ordain, and establish all manner of wholesome and reasonable laws, and ordinances, either with penalties or without, not repugnant to the Constitution, for the good and welfare of the State and its subjects. **THE TWO LEGAL PRINCIPLES OF POLICE POWER** 1\. Salus Populi Suprema est tex. Meaning: The welfare of the people is the supreme law. 2\. Sic utere tuo uy alienum non laedeas. Meaning: Use your own property as not to endure another\'s property. **POWER OF EMINENT DOMAIN** This is the right of the State to acquire private property for public use upon payment of just compensation and observance process of due process. **POWER OF TAXATION** An inherent power of the state exercised through legislature, to impose burdens upon subjects and objects within its jurisdiction, for the purpose of raising revenues to carry out the legitimate objects of the government. **5.) SCOPEOF COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS** 1\. Comparative Study of Political Systems 2\. Study of Constitutional Systems 3\. Study of Structures 4\. Study of Political Culture 5\. Study of Political Socialization 6\. Study of Political Participation 7\. Study of Power, Influence and Authority 8\. Study of Political Elites, Political Violence, and Political Corruption 9\. Study Processes of Political 10\. Study of Political Activities **SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS** Comparative government and politics is a dynamic field of study that seeks to understand the similarities and differences between political systems across the globe. This field goes beyond simply describing political institutions; it delves into the complex interplay of structures, processes, and behaviors that shape political outcomes. This analysis encompasses a wide range of topics, from the formal institutions of government to the informal influences of social and cultural forces. **6.) PRINCIPLES OF THE PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT** 1\. The aid of the Almighty God in the life of the nation and the people is recognized. (Preamble) 2\. Sovereign power of the people (Article 2, Sec. 1) 3\. Offensive or aggressive war is renounced (Article 2, Section 2) 4\. Civilian Authority is supreme over military (Article 2, Section 2) 5\. Separation of the church and state (Article 2, Section 6) 6\. Importance of the family as a basic autonomous social institution (Article 2, Section 12) 7\. Human rights are guaranteed (Article 3, Section 1-22; Article 13, Section 17-19) 8\. Right to suffrage (Article 5) 9\. Separation of powers with checks and balances (Article 6, 7 and 8) 10\. Local autonomy and Autonomous Regions are guaranteed. ( Article 10) 11\. Majority rule in democratic and republican state (Article 2, Section 1) 12\. Non-suability of the State (Article 16, Section 3) 13\. Guarantees of Social Justice (Article 13, Sections 1-16) 14\. Accountability of Public Officers (Article 11) The 1987 constitution of the Philippines is based on certain fundamental philosophies or principles of government, which have become part and parcel of our democratic heritage as people. Awareness of this principles would help the students to understand the Constitution better. **B. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT** **1.) MONARCHY** a form of government wherein the power or sovereignty is exercised by one person only, usually a king or queen. In older forms of monarchy, the king or queen claimed absolute power. Rulers often claimed to hold this power by \"divine right,\" or the will of God. How Monarchy Works A. SUCCESSION Most monarchies operate on hereditary principles, where the position of monarch is passed down through a royal family. Succession can be governed by primogeniture. B. POWERS AND FUNCTIONS Absolute Monarchies: The monarch holds almost complete control over the state. They can make laws, levy taxes, and govern without needing approval from other bodies. Constitutional Monarchies: The monarch\'s powers are limited by a constitution or laws. They often perform ceremonial duties and have limited or no role in day-to-day governance. In a constitutional monarchy, the legislature holds the most political power. **KINDS OF MONARCHY** **1. ABSOLUTE MONARCHY** The Monarch is both the Head of the State and Head of Government, his power is not limited by a constitution or by the law. Ex. Saudi Arabia **2. CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY** The Monarch is the Head of the State but not the Head of Government, his power is limited by a constitution. Ex. UK, Japan and Sweden. **ADVANTAGES OF MONARCHY** Predictable government Stable government Reduces political divide in a country Trained leadership **DISADVANTAGES OF MONARCHY** Monarchy can easily turn to absolutism No guarantee of efficiency of leadership Outdated political system Creates a class based society Luxury of royals family with people\'s tax No political rights for citizens Struggle for power **2.)ARISTOCRACY** Aristocracy is a form of government in which the people are ruled by a small, privileged-class of people called aristocrats. The term \"aristocracy\" comes from the Greek words \"aristos\" (best) and \"kratos\" (power), meaning \"rule by the best\". **CHARACTERISTICS OF ARISTOCRATIC GOVERNMENT** Aristocracy is defined by the concentration of power within a restricted group of people. Leadership positions and political influence are inherited rather than earned through merit or election. Aristocratic systems create and maintain a distinct social hierarchy. Decision-making in an aristocracy is typically controlled by the elite class **STRUCTURE OF ARISTOCRATIC GOVERNMENT** Aristocrats or Nobles Council or Assembly Administrative Officials Legal System Limited Public Participation **ADVANTAGES** Stability of Governance Education and Experience Efficient Decision-Making **DISADVANTAGES** Limited Political Participation Reinforcement of Inequality Resistance to Reform **3.) DEMOCRACY** Democracy comes from the Greek words \"demos\", meaning people, and \"kratos\" meaning power. Democracy can be thought of as \"power of the people\" A way of governing which depends on the will of the people. Democracy is the government of the people, by the people, for the people. Abraham Lincoln (16th U.S. President) What are the 14 principles of democracy? 1\. Participation of citizens 2\. Equality 3\. Accountability 4\. Transparency 5\. Political tolerance 6\. Multi-party system 7\. Control over the abuse of power 8\. Freedom of economy 9\. Bill of rights 10\. Human rights 11\. Free and fair elections 12\. Free courts 13\. Accepting election results 14\. Rule of law **TYPES OF DEMOCRACY** **Direct Democracy** A direct democracy is one where citizens vote on every issue themselves. Direct Democracy emphasizes direct citizen involvement in decision- making and is most practical at local levels or in smaller communities. **Representative Democracy** A representative democracy is a system of government where citizens elect representatives to vote on laws on their behalf. Representative Democracy relies on elected officials to make decisions on behalf of citizens. It is better suited for managing complex, large-scale governance and allows for specialization in policy-making. Accountability is maintained through regular elections, but day to day public involvement is less direct. **INSTITUTIONS IN DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM** **A. Legislative Branch** The legislative branch is responsible for enacting the laws of the state and appropriating the money necessary to operate the government **B. Executive Branch** The executive branch is responsible for implementing and administering the public policy enacted and funded by the legislative branch. **C. Judicial Branch** The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting the constitution and laws and applying their interpretations to controversies brought before it. **ADVANTAGES OF DEMOCRACY** People\'s Government Safeguarding People\'s Interest Promotion of Equality Stability Decision Making Political Involvement Peace Good Citizens Power Sharing Acceptance **DISADVANTAGES OF DEMOCRACY** Preference to Quantity Incompetency Based on Unnatural Equality Influenced sides in Democracy Misuse of Resources Corruption Conflict of choices Less Efficiency Promotion of Malpractices **4. REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT** -A republican government is one in which the people-directly or indirectly-are the ultimate source of authority, electing representatives to make laws that serve their interests and advance the common good. **ADVANTAGES** A republican government is constitutional Fairness Common welfare **DISADVANTAGES** People in a large diverse republic might get into factions or special interest groups but work against each instead of working for common good. Republican government works best in small communities. HOW IS REPUBLICAN DIFFERS TO DEMOCRACY? While both democracies and republics give power to the people, in a republic people are represented by elected officials. A republic believes in the rights of the individual. In a democracy, however, the ultimate rule is with the majority, and not necessarily with the individual. **5. PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT** -A form of government wherein the President serves as nominal or titular head. It is the Prime Minister that runs the affairs of the State. He is directly accountable to the people. Under this system the ministry Is legally responsible to legislature and consequently to the electorate. Parts: -Monarch -Senate -House of Commons **ADVANTAGES** Quick response to changing circumstances Efficient lawmaking and policy implementation Formation of coalitions promote stability Removal of the government if necessary **DISADVANTAGES** Political instability Disruptive and costly Limit the influence of individual legislators Delays in decision making and policy Implementation **6. PRESIDENTIAL GOVERNMENT** A form of government wherein the President is the chief executive of the state and independent of the legislature with respect to his tenure, acts, and policies. **Types:** -Constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial monarch -Parliamentary republic with a ceremonial president -Parliamentary republic with an executive president **ADVANTAGES** Ensures check and balances President can make decisions directly Political accountability **DISADVANTAGES** Conflict between executive and legistal \"Winner-takes-all\" nature of presidential election Lack of mechanisms in removing a president Less diverse range of perspectives in decision making **HOW IS PARLIAMENTARY DIFFERS TO PRESIDENTIAL?** Leadership Differences The presidential system and the parliamentary system are two distinct forms of government. -In a parliamentary system, you have a monarchy or a president to serves as the head of the state and a prime minister to serve as the head of the government -In a presidential system, you only have a president, who serves as the head of the state and the head of the government **7.) COMMUNISM** Communism a government where people shared work fairly and were paid equally. The word \"Communism\" comes from the Latin word \"Communis\" which means common or belonging to all. ORIGIN OF COMMUNISM Original idea was proposed in Ancient Greece. In modern times it was proposed by Karl Marx and his good friend Friedrich Engels. They studied the history of world economics and how power industry & finances were controlled Marx and Engels wrote the \" COMMUNIST MANIFESTO \" in 1848. **ADVANTAGES** Everyone gets something (equal) No unemployment Healthcare for all citizens Cooperation of the people (work for benefit of country) **DISADVANTAGES** Abuse of power Restrictions (no freedom of speech, press, religious practice) Censorship Individual doesn\'t compete **8.) TOTALITARIANISM** -Totalitarianism is a form of in which national government takes control of all aspects of both public and private life. Political system dominates: Religion Family life Economy Education All powerful leader THE FACE OF TOTALITARIANISM **BENITO MUSSOLINI** Benito Mussolini convinced war veterans that they needed to fight the politicians who were destroying Italy 1919: Mussolini founded a political movement which laid the groundwork for the fascist ideology. Fascism - strong, centralized government headed by a powerful dictator; rooted in nationalism Did not attempt to control farms & factories like Communism; many Italians feared Communism March on Rome (1922) - Italian king allowed him to form new government. LOGIC OF TOTALITARIANISM In order to create a perfect society out of imperfect human beings, the political system requires a high level of coercive control over every facet of life. **ADVANTAGES** Citizens are loyal because there is no competition for trust or affection Decisions are made and implemented swiftly **DISADVANTAGES** Leader has absolute power People are forced to do what the government tells them The people are prevented from leaving country **9.) AUTHORITARIANISM** -is defined as a form of government characterized by absolute or blind obedience to authority, as against individual freedom and related to the expectation of unquestioning obedience. -A charismatic leader An authoritarian government is a government that holds power and makes policies without the consent of the people that it rules. It often use their power to suppress descent and exert control over the dissemination of information, including mass media. **THE PROS:** STRENGTHS AND ADVANTAGES OF AUTHORITARIAN LEADERSHIP - Decisive Action: Authoritarian leaders can make quick decisions without lengthy discussions or debates. - Clear Direction: With a strong, central figure at the helm, there is often a clear vision and set of goals. - Efficiency in Implementation: Authoritarian leadership can streamline processes and reduce bureaucratic delays. **THE CONS:** WEAKNESSES AND DISADVANTAGES OF AUTHORITARIAN LEADERSHIP - Not Suitable For Situations That Require Strong Collaborations - Too Much Dependence on the Leader and Creates Leadership Risks - Can Discourage Certain Individuals and Create Tensions **GROUP 2** **C. COMPARISONS OF SYSTEM** 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Parliamentary System 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Presidential System 3. Bicameralism VS Unicameralism **Introduction** In the present era, the government has evolved into a welfare state that prioritises both the general welfare of the nation and that of its inhabitants. Democracy becomes the sole answer of a welfare state. One of the key factors in developing a welfare state lies in the correct process of choosing the leaders of the countries. Democratic governments often take one of two forms: Presidential or Parliamentary. **(1) Parliamentary System of Government** In Parliamentary system of government, there is a head of the state whose position is different from that of the head of the government. In such system, legislature plays a supreme role and executive derives its power from the legislature. Therefore, the executive is responsible to the house of people's representative in the legislature. **Features of the parliamentary system** 1. **Close relationship between the legislature and the executive: **The Prime Minister along with the Council of Ministers form the executive and the Parliament is the legislature. The PM and the ministers are elected from the members of parliament. 2. **Executive responsible to the legislature: T**he executive is responsible to the legislature. There is a collective responsibility, that is, each minister's responsibility is the responsibility of the whole Council. 3. **Dual executive: **There are two executives -- the real executive and the titular executive. The nominal executive is the head of state (president or monarch) while the real executive is the Prime Minister, who is the head of government. 4. **Leadership of the Prime Minister: **The leader of the majority party in the lower house is appointed as the Prime Minister, giving them significant authority and influence over the government\'s decision-making process. 5. **No fixed tenure: **The term of the government depends on the continued support of the lower house. If the government loses a vote of confidence, it is required to resign. Elections will then be held and a new government can be formed. **Merits of Parliamentary System** The advantages of the parliamentary system are as follows: - **Better coordination between the executive and the legislature: **Since the executive is a part of the legislature, and generally the majority of the legislature support the government, it is easier to pass laws and implement them. - **Prevents authoritarianism:** Since the executive is responsible to the legislature, and can vote it out in a motion of no confidence, there is no authoritarianism. - **Responsible government:** The members of the legislature can ask questions and discuss matters of public interest and put pressure on the government. The parliament can check the activities of the executive. - **Representing diverse groups:** In this system, the parliament offers representation to diverse groups of the country. This is especially important for a country like India. - **Flexibility: **There is flexibility in the system as the PM can be changed easily if needed. During the Second World War, the British PM Neville Chamberlain was replaced by Winston Churchill. This is unlike the presidential system where he/she can be replaced only after the entire term or in case of impeachment/incapacity. **Demerits of Parliamentary System** The disadvantages of the parliamentary system are as follows: - **No separation of powers: **The executive and legislative branches are intertwined. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are typically members of Parliament, leading to a blurring of lines. - **Instability:** Since the governments sustain only as long as they can prove a majority in the house, there is instability if there is no single-largest party after the elections. Coalition governments are generally quite unstable and short-lived. Because of this, the executive has to focus on how to stay in power rather than worry about the state of affairs/welfare of the people. - **Lack of specialization leading to inefficiency**: While it is true that parliamentary system requires less personnel to handle both legislative and executive functions, it is important to note that a minister may lack specialization in the art of governance in one arm of government, thus leading to inefficiency in such regard.. - **Failure to take a prompt decision:** Since there is no fixed tenure enjoyed by the Council of Ministers, it often hesitates from taking bold and long-term policy decisions. - **Party politics:** Party politics is more evident in the parliamentary system where partisan interests drive politicians more than national interests. **(2) Presidential System of Government** ----------------------------------------- It became known as 'presidential' because a directly elected president was its most salient difference. This doesn't mean that the president holds supremacy like the prime minister or parliament. In fact, power in the presidential system is divided among many, so no individual or institution can ever become supreme. In this system all three branches -- executive, legislative, and judiciary -- are constitutionally independent of each other, and no branch can dismiss or dissolve any other. **Features of the Presidential System** 1. The executive (President) can veto acts by the legislature. 2. The President has a fixed tenure and cannot be removed by a vote of no-confidence in the legislature. 3. Generally, the President has the power to pardon or commute judicial sentences awarded to criminals. 4. The President is elected directly by the people. **Merits of Presidential System** The advantages of the presidential system are given below: - **Separation of powers:** Efficiency of administration is greatly enhanced since the three arms of the government are independent of each other. - **Expert government:** Since the executive need not be legislators, the President can choose experts in various fields to head relevant departments or ministries. This will make sure that people who are capable and knowledgeable form part of the government. - **Stability:** This type of government is stable. Since the term of the president is fixed and not subject to majority support in the legislative, he need not worry about losing the government. There is no danger of a sudden fall of the government. There is no political pressure on the president to make decisions. - **Less influence of the party system:** Political parties do not attempt to dislodge the government since the tenure is fixed. - **Individual Ministerial Responsibility**: Unlike the parliamentary system, which allows a non-performing minister to shelter under the concept of collective responsibility, the presidential system makes it easier for an ineffective minister to be identified and singled out for blame or even dismissal. His dismissal will not affect other ministers or even, in the extreme make a government to collapse. **Demerits of Presidential System** The disadvantages of the presidential system are given below: - **Gridlock and Stalemate:** When the executive and legislature branches are controlled by different parties or have conflicting agendas, it can be difficult to pass legislation and implement policies. - **Fixed terms: This can make it difficult to remove ineffective president, even if they are no longer serving the best interests of the country.** - **Costly Elections: **Presidential elections are often expensive and time-consuming, leading to a system where only wealthy individuals have a realistic chance of winning. - **Spoils system: **The system gives the president sweeping powers of patronage. Here, he can choose executives as per his will. This gives rise to the spoils system where people close to the president (relatives, business associates, etc.) get roles in the government. **(3) Unicameralism** and **Bicameralism** refer to the structure of a legislature. **Unicameralism** This system has only one legislative chamber. Meaning it is a system of government where the legislature is composed of only one chamber. There is a single body responsible for making laws. The primary objective is to ensure that all the power and authority are concentrated in one house, thereby enhancing the efficiency of the decision-making process. **Unicameralism is often associated with smaller countries or those with a relatively homogeneous population.** In these cases, a single chamber may be sufficient to represent the interests of the people. However, unicameralism can also be found in larger countries, such as China. In these cases, the single chamber may be divided into committees or other bodies to represent different regions or interests within the country. Examples of unicameral systems include China\'s National People\'s Congress, Iran\'s Majlis and Turkey's Grand National Assembly. **Advantages** - Efficiency**.** - Cost-effective - Simplicity - Accountability **Disadvantages** - Lack of Checks and Balances - Dominance - Limited Representation - Risk of Tyranny **Bicameralism** This system has two separate legislative chambers or houses. These chambers are often called the upper house and the lower house. These two chambers work together to pass laws. Examples of bicameral systems include the United States Congress (Senate and House of Representatives), the United Kingdom Parliament (House of Lords and House of Commons), and India's Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States). The primary objective of Bicameralism is to ensure that all sections of society get fair representation in the legislative. **Advantages** - Checks and Balances - Representation - Expertise - Stability **Disadvantages** - Inefficiency - Cost - Complexity **D. INSTITUTIONS** 1. Constitutions 2. Electoral System 3. Executive and Bureaucracies 4. Legislatives 5. Federalism and Decentralization 6. Judicial System **1. CONSTITUTIONS** : The term constitution is derived from Latin \"Constitute\" which means \" to establish\" : It is the fundamental rule of the state which regulates the distribution of powers within the organs of government. **WHY DO WE NEED A CONSTIUTIONS?** 1\. To curb the powers of the government by fundamental law. 2\. To protect the rights of individuals. 3\. To establish the principle of \"rule of law\" 4\. To save the state from anarchy 5\. To define the operation of the sovereign power of the state 6\. To limit present and future generations from arbitrary government. **HISTORICAL TIME FRAMES** Analyzing the Philippine executive must necessarily cover the specific constitutions, the power dynamics, and the political leadership in the given time frames: 1\) The First Philippine Republic in 1899, referred to as the Malolos Republic, based on the Malolos Constitution. 2\) The Philippine Commonwealth under the terms of the 1935 Constitution and the United States Tydings-McDuffie law. 3\) The independence period of the Republic of the Philippines under the 1935 Constitution from 1946 to 1972. 4\) The Marcos dictatorial regime from the declaration of martial law in 1972, the operation of the 1973 Constitution, the 1981 Constitution, until the February 1986 EDSA People Power Revolution. 5\) The post-EDSA 1 era under the 1987 Constitution. **1987 CONSTITUTION OF THE PHILIPPINES** The Constitutions it is divided into **eighteen (18) articles** as follows: - ARTICLE I National Territory - ARTICLE II Declaration of Principles and State Policies - ARTICLE III Bill of Rights - ARTICLE IV Citizenship - ARTICLE V Suffrage - ARTICLE VI The Legislative Department - ARTICLE VII Executive Department - ARTICLE VIII Judicial Department - ARTICLE IX Constitutional Commissions - ARTICLE X Local Government - ARTICLE XI Accountability of Public Officers - ARTICLE XII National Economy and Patrimony - ARTICLE XIII Social Justice and Human Rights - ARTICLE XIV Education, Science and Technology. Arts, Culture, and Sports - ARTICLE XV The Family - ARTICLE XVI General Provisions - ARTICLE XVII Amendments or Revisions - ARTICLE XVIII Transitory Provisions **2. ELECTORAL SYSTEM** **ELECTIONS** - Formal decision making process. The citizens choose public officials. **SUFFRAGE** - Right to participate in elections. An important rights of citizen. It refers not only to vote but, also the right to run office. **BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 881, December 03, 1985\]** **OMNIBUS ELECTION CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES** \- This code contains all of the rules governing the conduct of elections in the Philippines. **TYPES OF ELECTORIAL SYSTEM PLURALITY SYSTEM** **PLURALITY SYSTEM** An electoral system where the candidate which gets the most number of votes is elected into office. **PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION** A candidate must gain a required number of votes (Quota) in order to be elected into office It ensures that all sectors and groups in the state gain representation in the government **THE PHILIPPINE ELECTORAL PROCESS** **PHILIPPINE ELECTIONS** Held both at the national and local levels. Voters elect the President and Vice President Senators, district, party-list representatives, governors, and mayors local council members and barangay officials. **ELECTION AND CAMPAIGN PERIODS** - Presidential and Vice Presidential = 90 days campaign - Candidates for congress the same with local government = 45 days - Barangay Elections = 15 days **THE VOTERS QUALIFICATIONS** \(1) Citizen and registered voter in the barangay where the candidate intends. to be elected. \(2) At least 18 years of age on the day of the election. \(3) Must be a resident of the barangay where the condidate intends to be elected for at least 1 year immediately before the day of the election. \(4) Must be able to read and write in Filipino or any other local language or dialect. **3. EXECUTIVE AND BUREAUCRACIES EXECUTIVE** The executive power shall be vested in the President of the Philippines 6 years term He may only served for 1 term **QUALIFICATIONS:** natural born filipino, a registered voter, must be able to read and write, and 40 years of age at the day of the election **BUREACRACIES:** a system of administration based upon organization into bureaus, division of labor, hierarchy of authority; designed to dispose of a large body of work in a routine manner. **II. Characteristics of Philippine Bureaucracy** Vulnerability to nepotism favoring of relatives or friends, especially by giving them jobs. **III. Philippine Bureaucratic Behavior** Conformity to policies - bureaucracy stresses unquestioning compliance to organizational policies, rules and regulations, e.g. The Filipino is Authoritarian. When power is given to him, he makes known to everyone that he is the boss. **Introduction** According to the 1987 Constitution, legislative power shall be vested in the Congress of the Philippines, which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate shall be composed of twenty-four Senators who shall be elected at large by the qualified voters of the Philippines, as may be provided by law; **Legislative process** Congress is responsible for making enabling laws to make sure the spirit of the constitution is upheld in the country and, at times, amend or change the constitution itself. In order to craft laws, the legislative body comes out with two main documents: bills and resolutions. **Bills** A bill is the form used for most legislation, whether permanent or temporary, general or special, public or private. A bill originating in the House of Representatives is designated by the letters \"H.R.\", signifying \"House of Representatives\", followed by a number that it retains throughout all its parliamentary stages. Bills are presented to the President for action when approved in identical form by both the House of Representatives and the Senate. **5. FEDERALISM AND DECENTRALIZATION** - **Federalism** is a system of governance in which power is constitutionally divided between a central authority and regional or state governments. Each level of government operates independently in its areas of jurisdiction, while sharing power in some key sectors. - **Decentralization**, on the other hand, refers to the process of transferring power from a central authority to local or regional governments within a unitary system. Unlike federalism, where power is constitutionally entrenched, decentralization is often the result of political reforms. ***Three Dimensions of Decentralization*** - Administrative Decentralization transfers substantial authority and responsibility for managing services to local government, local communities and the private sector. - Political Decentralization transfers policy and legislative powers from central government to elected sub-national and local councils. - Fiscal Decentralization transfers authority and responsibility for raising and spending revenues from central governments and communities. **6. JUDICIAL SYSTEM** - The Judiciary is a system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. - It maintains the rule of law, acts as a check on executive and legislative powers, and ensures justice and fairness. **Judicial Independence** This independence is essential for maintaining the rule of law and protecting individual rights. Without judicial independence, courts could become tools of political or personal agendas, undermining democracy and the fairness of the legal system. **Key reasons why judicial independence is important:** - **Impartiality:** Judges must be able to decide cases impartially, ensuring that legal disputes are resolved fairly. - **Accountability:** By acting independently, the judiciary holds the executive and legislative branches accountable to the law. - **Public Confidence:** When the judiciary is seen as independent, the public has greater confidence in the legal system\'s fairness and integrity. - **Protection of Rights:** Independent courts safeguard citizens\' rights and freedoms by preventing abuses of power by other government branches. **Mechanisms to Ensure Judicial Independence:** - Security of Tenure - Appointment Process - Financial Independence Prohibition of Outside Influence - Immunity from Lawsuits **Legal System** - **Legal system**: the mechanism for creating, interpreting, and enforcing the laws in a specified jurisdiction - **Types of legal system**: - **Common Law (based on precedent, traditions)** - **Civil Law (based upon a set of laws that compromise a code)** - **Theocratic Law (based upon religious precepts)** - **Mixed systems are possible** - **Implications of various types of legal system for business.** **E. Personalities** 1. Political and Party Systems 2. Interest Group and Social Movements 3. Political Culture 4. Political Activism 5. Political Communication **POLITICAL & PARTY SYSTEM** Key Roles - **Heads of State:** Represent the nation domestically and internationally. They often have executive powers, like signing laws, commanding the military, and negotiating treaties. - **Lawmakers:** Members of legislative bodies who create, amend, and approve laws. They represent the public and shape national policy. - **Party Leaders:** These leaders shape party platforms, decide on electoral tactics, and manage internal party politics. Their leadership influences both their party's unity and public perception. **EX.** **President:** - President Ferdinand Marcos Jr. focuses on economic recovery and infrastructure development. **Senators & Congressmen:** - Senators (24 members) and Congressmen (House of Representatives) craft laws, represent public interests and provide checks on the executive branch. **Party Leaders:** - PDP-Laban and Lakas-CMD play significant roles in shaping electoral outcomes and government policies. **PARTY SYSTEMS:** **Single-Party Systems:** - Centralizedcontrol where one dominant party holds power, and opposition is often limited or non-existent **Two-Party Systems:** - Political competition revolves around two major parties, with other smaller parties having minimal influence **Multi-Party Systems:** - Multiple parties compete for power, often leading to coalition governments to form a majority. **Key Parties:** - **PDP-Laban:** A major political party associated with former President Duterte, influential in recent elections. - **Lakas-CMD:** Another prominent party, often allied with powerful political figures and dynasties. - **Liberal Party:** Traditionally a dominant opposition party, representing more progressive policies. **Party Switching (\"Balimbing\"):** - Politicians frequently change party affiliations to align with the ruling party or improve their electoral chances. This practice affects party loyalty and weakens long-term ideological consistency. **Impact of Personalities in the Philippine Party System** **Coalitions and Legislative Success:** - In the multi-party system, coalitions between different parties are necessary to secure a legislative majority. These alliances are crucial for passing laws and achieving policy goals, making coalition-building a key part of governance in the Philippines. **Political Culture** - Political culture refers to the shared beliefs, attitudes, values, and norms that shape the political behavior and perceptions of individuals within a society. It encompasses the collective understanding of how politics should work, what is considered acceptable or unacceptable in political behavior, and the expectations of citizens regarding their relationship with the government. ***[Almond and Verba stated that there are three types of political culture:]*** **Parochial Political Culture-** Lack of knowledge/interest in political input/output. **Subject Political Culture-** Awareness of the process but more or less passive participation. **Participant Political Culture-** Awareness of the process; belief in the right to participate. **Political Activism** - Political activism refers to the active and deliberate participation of individuals or groups in the political process to promote specific social, economic, environmental, or political goals or to bring about change in government policies, practices, or decisions. **Forms of Political Activism** - Strikes - Boycotts - Lobbying - Petitions - Digital Activism - Community Organizing - Protest Art **Positive Aspects** - Promotes Change - - Raises Awareness - Empowers Citizens - Checks Power **Negative Aspects** - Can Lead to Conflict - Polarization - Disruption - Misuse **TYPES OF ACTIVISM** - **ENVIRONMENT ACTIVISM-** Environment Activists advocate for policies and actions aimed at addressing climate change, protecting natural resources, and promoting sustainability. - **HUMAN RIGHTS ACTIVISM-** Activists campaigning for the protection of civil liberties, gender equality, racial justice, and other fundamental human rights. - **SOCIAL JUSTICE ACTIVISM-** Activists working to address issues of inequality such as disparities, discrimination, and access to essential services like healthcare and education. **Political Communication** - Political communications the process of exchanging information, ideas, and messages among political actors, including politicians, government officials, candidates, political parties, interest groups, the media, and public. **Examples of Political Communication** - Social Media Campaigns - Traditional Media - Public Speeches and Debates - Misinformation and Troll Armies