GNS 311 Practical Skill Acquisition Lecture Notes PDF

JOSEPH AYO BABALOLA UNIVERSITY IKEJI ARAKEJI COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP LECTURE NOTES ON PRACTICAL SKILL ACQUISITION COURSE CODE- GNS 311 PREPARED BY: A. A. OLADELE  LECTURE NOTE...

JOSEPH AYO BABALOLA UNIVERSITY IKEJI ARAKEJI COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP LECTURE NOTES ON PRACTICAL SKILL ACQUISITION COURSE CODE- GNS 311 PREPARED BY: A. A. OLADELE  LECTURE NOTE ON PRACTICAL SKILL ACQUISITION – GNS 311 CREDIT UNITS – 2 UNITS PREPARED BY: A.A. OLADELE PRINCIPAL MANAGER, ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND SKILL ACQUISITION CENTRE, JABU PHILOSOPHY: The underlying philosophy of the course is the development of creative minds among the students and preparing them for leadership responsibilities in industry, government and NGOs. It is aimed at producing graduates that are self-employed, self-reliant, competent and efficient employers of labour. They will be capable of setting-up their own businesses, thereby adding value to our nation’s economy and instead of them being job seekers; they will be employers on their own right. OBJECTIVE: The entrepreneurship Centre will give training, both in theory and practical on the Skill Options at the Centre with the hope of getting Students to use their brains and hands for their future economic empowerment.It is mandatory for students to try their hands on skills of their choice at the Entrepreneurship Centre. Much more, the emphasis will be on the aspects of ancillary functions, equipment and systems required for the successful operation of a small/medium scale industrial enterprises. Students are required to choose from available skill options at the Centre, as well as, those enterprises in JABU with value additions. At the end of the course, it is hoped that students would be able to make and produce their own products with little or no supervision during whichassessments of students’ general competence level would be ascertained. Week Topic Learning Objectives/Outcome 1 Registration, Orientation Exercise Familiarization of Students To Available Skill Options to choose from. They are as contained in the body of the lecture notes. 2 Standard operating procedure (SOP); To enable students learn the Good Manufacturing Practice; Ancillary importance of SOP in small/medium and utility equipment scale industries 3 Maintenance of Equipment; Maintenance Students are to get familiarized with Repair and Services (MRS) MRS in SME 4 First aid, Lubricant and lubrication To introduce students to the first aid process & lubrication process. 5 Quality Assurance & Quality Control To let students grasp the importance or quality ascertainment 6 Measuring units and measuring To familiarize students with different instruments units of measurements and, instrument in use 7 Material sourcing To get students informed of the raw materials source and availability 8 Stores function To let students know the importance of stores and inventory control 9 Factory in-house and transport system To expose students to different equipment used in that respect 10 Branding, Finishing and packaging To enable students develop their unique product packaging style 11 Small/medium scale industrial To get students aware of different association association in SME 12 Government Regulatory Agencies Awareness of government agencies responsible for the activities of starting-up a future economic empowerment 13 Examination WEEK 1 REGISTRATION, ORIENTATION& FAMILIARIZATION OF STUDENTS TO AVAILABLE SKILL OPTIONS Introduction to Various SkillOptions Students are to be introduced to different skill options available with the view of picking interest from them. Some of the Skills/Trades on offer are as follows – i) Paint production ii) Soap production iii) Domestic Sanitary and Hygiene products – JABU Sanitizer, Disinfectant, Aftershave etc. iv) Table water production v) Fishery vi) Piggery vii) Bee keeping viii) Poultry keeping ix) Commercial farming x) Bakery/ confectionary xi) Events management and Decoration xii) Tie & Dye xiii) Screen Printing xiv) Fashion Designing xv) Leather works i.e. Shoe and Bag production xvi) Multi-media xvii) Catering xviii) Food processing xix) Vegetable and crop production xx) Rapid multiplication processes (plantain sucker, cassava stems, yam mini-set, sugarcane)  xxi) Block making xxii) Visual art xxiii) Arts & Beads xxiv) Gaari Processing & Cassava Starch Production xxv) Commercial Dog Breeding (Animal Husbandry) Students are to view the general run-down of available skill options so as to stimulate their interest in the options. This is where the students are given the summary of what the skill options are all about and what it takes to make success of it in the end. Here, students are made to get familiar with skills rudiments and learning techniques in order to adopt it as a skill option to which they are to be awarded a Certificate of Skill Proficiency in their Final-year Project work. WEEK 2 Learning Objectives and Outcome STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE In this section, students are to know and demonstrate the step-by –step or stage-by-stage methods of operation involved in getting the required production output. Standard Operating procedure is the detail, step by step, stage by stage mechanism of achieving the end product. This is the most important aspect of skill acquisition process and, because it is hands-on practical approach rather than theory, it has to be practiced day-in and day- out until efficiency and proficiency is achieved Students should continue this process on their own at any free period.This is to get students take-off from where they stopped and initiate them with the new task of step-by-step and stage-by-stage method of building a product from the start to the finishing stage, thereby, producing their respective final finished products. Students should be able to continue work on the SOP as previously learnt in previous course of studies  GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES This is about the safety and hygiene regulation and the environmental upkeep of the workplace and the surrounding in order to ensure cleanliness and germ-free work environment. Good manufacturing practice is about personal hygiene and safety requirement mostly applicable to the food and pharmaceutical industries. These are in the areas of putting on safety wears such as Overalls, Boiler suit, Safety boots, Safety goggles, Ear muff, Nose cover and Helmet. There should be no dangling of chains and wearing of rings. It is also about keeping the floor-space clean, no exposure or dangling or crossing and hangings of cables and wires. There must be avoidance of slippage due to chemical or oil or grease on the floor. Additionally, it is to ensure that there is running water at the toilet and toilet facility is always kept clean. Moreover, it is in keeping with a good and hygienic Canteen environment. Provision at strategic locations of wash-hand basins with running water, soap, and detergents are also very important. Students should be able to practicalize the general aspect of Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) in their operation. GMP is the hygiene and safety requirement in any goods producing industry, small or big. This has to do with good and hygienic up-keeping of workstations and its environments. It also has to do with the putting on of industrial and safety wears for safety and to avoid infections and contaminations. It is pertinent to also know that, it is workmen that get in contact with products who deserve good toilet facilities and wash hand basins in appropriate locations and not only the big bosses in industries. ANCILLARY AND UTILITY EQUIPMENT To enable students identify the utility and auxiliary machines and equipment such as boiler, chiller, dryer, compressor etc. in the operation of their businesses. Utility equipment is quite essential as without them, production effort could not be effective. The place of Dryer and Boiler in food and food related production industry is of great importance in achieving good, clean and quality product. There are equipment/ machineries required to enhance operations and processes and without them, one cannot achieve operational efficiency. Therefore, this section is to enable students identify the utility and auxiliary machines and equipment required, they are called utility equipment such as:- Boiler plant – Sometimes called steam boiler; it is utility equipment for producing steam. There are different types of boiler, Gas, Diesel fuel and wood waste fired boiler. Chiller - This is utility equipment for keeping items at a lower cooling range and at a regulated temperature. The capacity varies according to the utility value. Dryer – This is for drying commodity items in order to preserve them for a longer shelf- life. Compressor – This is a pneumatic device for producing compressed air at a regulated pressure. Generator – This is equipment used for generating electricity. Now that obtaining electricity through the national grid has become erratic and unpredictable, this item is an indispensable utility for production and manufacturing activities. Utility equipment is quite essential, as without them, production effort could not be effective. The place of dryer and boiler in food and food related production industry is of great importance in achieving good, clean and quality product. WEEK 3 MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT The objective of maintenance of equipment at any industrial enterprise is to ensure normal productivity and reliable quality output. It is about the prevention of unexpected or accidental breakdowns of equipment. It is also to increase productivity through improvement and modification during schedules overhands. These objectives are achieved through two forms of maintenance – 1. Routine services between scheduled overhauls 2. Periodic scheduled repairs, consisting of minor and medium scale repairs and major overhauls. Routine technical servicing includes such basic tasks as inspection and checking of the technical condition of assemblies, units and the machinery spares. It is about the routine correction of minor faults and adjustment of parts and mechanism lubrication. The routine maintenance is the responsibility of the operators of the machine as well as of the maintenance of service. MAINTENANCE REPAIR AND SERVICES Repair personnel should keep a daily check on the state of equipment and on the observance of operational standards by production staff. The duty maintenance workers (filters, electrician and oiler) will thus be able to remove minor faults in the equipment by timely repairs. The periodic preventive measure laid down in servicing schedules include such points as – (a) The cleansing of unit subject to intensive wear resulting from unavoidable dust and dirt (b) The changing of oil in units with centralized or splashed lubrications systems (c) Inspecting equipment between schedule repairs (d) Performing schedule repairs (e) Testing electrical equipment. Planned Maintenance consists of minor and medium-scale repairs and overhauls. Minor or major are those undertaken to restore the working of individual parts and assemblies. They are comparatively simple and small in scale, and are performed on the spot at the machine by filters from the shop or departmental repair service, supervised by a charged-hand of the shop mechanic. The timing of each job is usually laid down for each shop in the annual maintenance schedule, and it is normally expected that they can be done when the machine is idle. If the equipment has to be shut down however, the time taken should never exceed the time set for the work involved. Medium repairs are minor overhauls carried out accordingly to the schedule. They are usually done by the maintenance group responsible for units and involve partial dismantling of the equipment, without removing it from its foundation. Worn parts are replaced or repaired, mechanisms are readjusted, and the accuracy of the relative positions of the various parts is checked. These repairs cover parts whose service life is about, equal to or shorter than the period between two minor overhauls. The volume of repair is about 50-60 percentage that of major overhauls. The work is supervised by the shop mechanic. Downtime of equipment should never exceed the time laid down for the job. Major overhauls are the largest scheduled repair work, and involve complete dismantling of the equipment, parts and assemblies including based plates are examined, worn parts are reconditioned or replaced, and the whole machine to restore and rated accuracy, power, and capacity of the machine. The volume of work is laid down in advance in the repaired schedule. Components units frequently have to be taken off their foundations during major overhauls, so that this work is usually combined with work to modify in whole or in part. Downtime however should never exceed the time laid down for the job. Unscheduled repairs may also be made to equipment, of course either in an emergency or as a recovery overhauls. Emergency repairs may be required as a result of breakdown arising from unpredictable overload. The character and volume of the repairs involved depend naturally on the nature of the breakdown. Cases of emergency repairs, however, will be drastically reduced by proper organization of preventive maintenance. Recovery overhauls may be carried out on much worn units which have already had several major overhauls, on units that were already repaired but are to be modified in design at the same time. WEEK 4 FIRST AID Every worker must be briefed in first-aid measure, and be capable of rendering first-aid quickly and effectively. If a man under voltage cannot tear himself away from the current- carrying parts, switch off the current immediately. If the switch is far away, cut the wire, say, by an axe with a wooden handle (permitted at 110,220 and 380V) or short the wire to burn the fuses. If the wire cannot be de-energized, tear away the injured man. Before that however, put on the rubber-gloves or step onto a footboard. Make sure your clothes are dry. If the man has fainted, apply artificial breathing without waiting for arrival of a Doctor or a Nurse. This is necessary because an electric shock frequently suspends respiration only temporarily. Before administering artificial breathing, unbutton the collar and loosen the belt of the injured man for better respiration. Beside grave accidents, there may occur slight traumas such as, cuts, remove the dirt around the wound with a piece of cotton; apply some cotton on top of it. Never wash the wound with a dirty handkerchief or a cloth. A bruised spot is compressed with a bandage upon which an ice or cold-water bag is applied and held for about twenty minutes. A badly bruised man should be sent to the medical station, using a stretcher, if necessary.  LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION PROCESS Machine component and parts are liable to wear due to friction effects, as a result of two surfaces in contacts with one another. This happens when they are either in motion or rubbing against one another. To prevent this, lubrication is very necessary. LUBRICATION MEDIUM Lubrication oil of different categories and grease of different categories are often required for lubrication purposes. The specification and utilization of which are normally specified as obtainable from different oil marketing companies. WEEK 5 QUALITY CONTROL IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP The quality control of any product is tested by its performance in service. Definition of quality Quality is that which fits a product for a given use – a product is not simply good for certain purpose. Quality in product does not develop of itself; it must be definitely and consistently striven for. The effort to achieve it must start with the original design, selection of materials and choice of manufacturing processes; it must continue through all the productive effort, including the assembling and testing, and it must also include adequate servicing even after the article is in the hand of the customer. Constant effort must be applied to the improvement of quality always with a view to make the product better for a given use. An attitude of “good enough” brings sooner or later a deterioration of quality. QUALITY CONTROL Rarely, if ever, is production equipment capable of continually producing items to a specified absolute level of accuracy. Variations in quality i.e. changes in dimension, content appearance and performance and so on will result either because of assignable causes such as wear and tear of tools or for some reasons of pure chance. The ability of equipment to produce items to the desired level of accuracy must be established and procedure installed to minimize the number of faulty items produced and to ensure that faulty or defective items, once produced, are not accepted or passed to the customer. During the design stage quality is determined by the specification of appropriate standards and tolerances on dimensions, contents and so on. Inspection of purchased materials should be conducted on receipts and prior to placing the items in stores. One or both of the following procedures will be adopted. I. Exhaustive inspection of every item received II. An inspection of a sample of the received items This procedure, which is commonly adopted, is referred to as acceptance sampling. Defective or damaged items will, of course, be returned to the supplier for rectification or replacement. Quality Determination and Control The determination of appropriate quality of materials and components influences all aspect of products and performance. However, it is as much an error to provide too high a level of quality and incur the resulting cost premiums as it is to utilize too poor quality for a given application. In somewhat, more precise terms, quality is an expression of the measured properties, conditions or characteristics of a product or process, usually stated in terms of grades, classes, or specifications and determined by the application that is involved. However, it is also important to list some other key factors regarding to quality control in Entrepreneurship, they include the following: Inspection during manufacture Inspection of finished products and parts Development of standards Methods of describing quality Brand or trade name Specifications  BENEFITS OF QUALITY CONTROL A good quality-control system will usually benefit both the seller and the buyer. Effective quality control by the vendor reduces inspection cost of the buyer; zero defect programs, to be discussed in the next section, are dependent on excellent quality control programs. The use of specific sampling method is based on the law of probability. WEEK 6 MEASURING UNITS SI units prefixes, multiples and sub-multiples Multiples and sub-multiples of SI units SI units’ prefixes Prefix symbol meaning Giga G Nominal unit x 109 Mega M Nominal unit x 106 Kilo K Nominal unit x 103 Hecto H Nominal unit x 102 Deca da Nominal unit x 101 Deci d Nominal unit x 10-1 Centi C Nominal unit x 10-2 Milli m Nominal unit x 10-3 Micro µ Nominal unit x 10-6 Nano n Nominal unit x 10-9 Pico p Nominal unit x 10-12  MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS The objective is to know the term, measuring instruments, in its wider sense, as well as knowing the application and selection process - Uses of measuring instruments It would be difficult to think of any man-made articles whose manufacture of production did not at some stage involved measurement. Also the operation of machine of all kinds has to be controlled either manually or automatically, and here again the first requirement is to measure variables concerned. For instance, driver must know the speed at which the vehicle is travelling hence, the law requires the vehicle to have a speedometer while the odometer will add the kilometers. Taking the term instrument in its wider sense, the following types may be categorized: a) Indicating instruments e.g. thermometer, pressure gauge b) Recording instrument e.g. temperature and pressure recorder c) Controlling instruments e.g. thermostat, float-type level control Factors Affecting Instrument Selection Accuracy may be defined as conformity with or nearness to the true value of the quantity being measured. The only time a measurement can be exactly correct is when it is a count of number of separate items e.g. number of components or number of electrical impulses. In all other cases there will be a difference between the true value and the value, the instrument indicates, record of control to – i.e. there is a measurement error. The extent of this error or the accuracy of the instrument may be specified in several ways: a) Point of accuracy b) Percentage of true value Error = Measured value – true value/ true value *100% c) Percentage of full scale deflection Error = Measured value – True value/ Max. Scale value *100% Sources of error in measuring instruments system Manufacturing errors Design inaccuracy Operating errors Environmental errors Application errors Ageing ANALOGUE DISPLAY Means that the magnitude of the pointer displacement represents or is analogous to the measured value. DIGITAL DISPLAY The alternative to an analogue display is a digital display – a series of digits (figures) appearing on a screen, or printed paper, so that the measurement is read as a number. A digital display requires less concentration on the part of the observer than does an analogue display. WEEK 7 AVAILABILITY AND SOURCE OF MATERIALS There is need to know and be guided on where to locate and source for the material needed in the respective skill since not knowing the right source may contribute to purchasing at higher price. And, once material content happens to be of higher price margin, it will have serious effect on profit margin and profitability. Recognition of need Any purchasing transaction starts with the recognition of need for an item. The need is recognized by the individual in charge. Description of need Once the need has been recognized, it must be so accurately described that all parties will know exactly what is wanted. An improperly and poorly described need can be costly. Selection of sources For most purchases there will be a number of alternative suppliers, from which one must ultimately be selected. The manner in which the purchasing is selected depends to a considerable extents on whether the item is bought regularly or is one that has seldom, if ever, be bought before. ASCERTAINING THE PRICE Price will be one important factor on which the final choice is based. There are three methods of price determination:- i. For items that are bought repeatedly, sufficient price information is readily available. ii. A second method of securing price information is to negotiate with the seller until agreement is reached in price and terms iii. The third method is the competitive bidding approach. PRICE DETERMINATION AND PURCHASING PROCEDURES Purchasing function is as important as stock control and inventory planning. During the process of selecting a source, factory owner must ascertain price information on the item being purchased. Price will be one of the important factors on which the final choice is made. This is where all other factors of consideration are equal. It is therefore, important to buy at the right price, right time, right quality and the right place WEEK 8 THE STORE FUNCTIONS The stores are to assist in the production of goods and services and no commercial production undertaking a substantial size can be efficiently managed without it. Purpose of maintaining stores The primary objective is to provide a service to the operating functions and this must be fully appreciated. The service given can be analyzed into three parts as follows:- i) To make available a balanced flow of raw materials, components, tools, equipment and any other commodities necessary to meet operational requirements ii) To provide maintenance materials spare parts and general stores as required iii) To accept and store scrap and other discarded materials as it arises RESPONSIBILITIES OF STORES ECONOMY The most important thing is to maintain the inventory value to the lowest practicable level at all times in order to economize the use of working capital and to economize the cost of storage. It will be readily understood that there are some conflicts between the need to give a good service and the need to economize in stock holding. On the other hand, the more stock-hold the easier is to have the required stock items readily available on demand; on the other hand, the more stock held, greater the cost incurred. It is necessary to seek and operate a satisfactory compromise between the two opposing forces, and in addition, to see that the store organization itself is economically worked and co-operates with other functions in securing savings in materials and costs wherever practicable. Identification This is the process of systematically defining and describing all aspect of stock. Receipt This is the process of accepting, from all sources, all materials and parts which are being used including supplies for production or operating processes, plant maintenance, offices capital installation and finished products. Inspection It means the examination of incoming consignments for quality. This is done before the items are accepted into store. Issue and dispatch This is the process of receiving demands, selecting the items required and handling them over to users Bin cards Accepted items are received into stores and are recorded into the bin cards Stock records These are documents which record, from day to day, full particulars of individual receipt, issues and balances of stock. Stock control It is the operation of continuously arranging receipts and issues to ensure that stock balances are adequate to support the current rate of consumption, with due regard to economy. It involves the related process of provisioning, whereby instructions are given for the placing of orders. Stock-taking This is the process of physical verification of the quantities and condition of goods Stock and Inventory Control In this section, students are to understand the essence of maintaining a store. WEEK 9 FACTORY IN-HOUSE TRANSPORT SYSTEM i. Forklift – this is a vehicular equipment for lifting and stacking materials in position ii. Mobile crane: this is also vehicular equipment for moving, lifting and stacking materials into a higher position at a vertical and horizontal direction. iii. Over-head crane: this is non-vehicular equipment attached to the stanchion of the roof of a factory and it is controlled by remote control system to achieve the height and axis desired. iv. Pallet truck/pallet roll - this could be a mechanical or non-mechanical device for lifting weight from one place to another. v. Wheel-barrow – this is a non-mechanical device for lifting weight from one place to another but it is in a bigger container-like structure. vi. Conveyor - this is a mechanical device, it may be a belt type or a chain type for conveying products in an assembly line. WEEK 10 FINISHING, PACKAGING, BRANDING AND FINDING SALES OUTLET FOR PRODUCTS In a value added business activities, finishing and packaging are the most important qualities that attracts would-be customer to the product. Therefore, in production and manufacturing industries, the role of packaging cannot be over-emphasis, for they are, as a matter of aesthetic, that is, the final psychological consideration injected into the product.This is the section where students are made to get involved in the mode of packaging and finishing. There are needs for packaging materials of different modes and forms and these depends on the particular and actual product being manufactured or produced. For instance, when it has to do with products such as paints, soaps, beverages and so on, different packaging could be employed. There may be need for cartons, labels, bottles, sachet etc. BRANDING AND TRADE MARK Branding and Trademark - This stage involves students in developing their own products’ brand names. This is important if a product is to have any commercial value. The product needs to be branded with its own trade mark for distinction and individual recognition. This sometimes is personalized and registered appropriately to avoid infringement by others. This stage involves developing individualized products brand name. This is important if a product has to be registered by the appropriate government agencies such as NAFDAC, SON, and the likes. And if a product should have any commercial value, a product emanating from a particular production source should have its own identity such as brand name or trade-mark. The products are required to be branded with its own trade- mark for distinction and individual recognition. This, sometimes, is personalized and registered appropriately to avoid infringement by others. This section is to enable students to design and come out with good brand and packaging in order to secure right sales and marketing outlet for products. WEEK 11 SMALL OR MEDIUM SCALE ASSOCIATION It is often necessary for an Entrepreneur to register with association and organization having the same corporate and commercial objectives. Such organizations are SMEDAN - Small and Medium Enterprises Development Association of Nigeria NASSI – National Association of Small Scale Industrialists MAN – Manufacturing Association of Nigeria. WASME – World Association of Small and Medium Enterprises NASME – Nigerian Association of Small and Medium Enterprises FUNCTIONS AND PURPOSES OF THESE ASSOCIATIONS 1. To encourage small scale industrialist to join the association so that they could present a common stand to government on matter affecting them. 2. Organizing its members to obtain loan from government under Government small scale loan scheme assistance. 3. Organizing members into co-operative bodies so as to be able to compete effectively with big industries WEEK 12 GOVERNMENT REGULATORY AGENCIES Students need to be aware of the regulations that may affect his or her new venture. At different stages of the business set-up, the entrepreneur will need legal advice, and since most lawyers have developed special expertise, the entrepreneur should carefully evaluate his or her needs before hiring one. The roles and functions of government agencies are very vital in achieving a standard entrepreneurial purpose. Such agencies include: NAFDAC, SON, CAC, WHO, EPA, Ministry of Health etc. (i) NAFDAC – National Agencies for Food & Drug Administration and Control. This agency was established to regulate and control, among many other functions, the activities of all foods and drugs processing, food and beverages consumption operations and utilization. This is to ensure that it meets the specified quality standard. (ii) SON: Standard Organization of Nigeria. This agency is to regulate the standard of manufacturing items produced within Nigeria and foreign countries. (iii) CAC: Corporate Affairs Commission. All business owners are to register their companies with this agencies (iv) WHO: World Health Organization. They are to regulate the standard of all related items such as foods, drugs and products bas to meet up with the international practice. (v) EPA: Environment Protection Agencies. They are responsible for the hygiene standard in and out of the factory and premises. Also they see to the general wellbeing in order to prevent health risks and hazards. Service trade secret can be formulas, pattern, and list of customers date bases, chemical compounds combination and ingredients. WEEK 13  Students are free to visit the work-stations at their own convenience in order to firm-up their creative Skills and Learning. There always be a trainer on hand for the impartation of knowledge and skill. During this period, students would be able to make and produce their own products with little or no supervision in assessment of students’ general competence level. Revision &Examination  (A) - BAKERY INDUSTRY Introduction It is hardly necessary to stress the importance of Bread and it is grown all over the world. The industry where bread is baked is called bakery. RAW MATERIALS FOR BREAD Wheat flour – the main raw material for bread can broadly be classified into high protein (protein over 11%), medium protein flour (protein 8 – 11%) and low protein flour (protein below 8%). Flour contains proteins which when moistened and beaten, form gluten, which is elastic and so, helps to hold the air and carbon dioxide in the mixture and make it light. In bread making, the gluten developed by kneading to form a network which sets on baking. Different wheat have varying amount of gluten but the plain flour on the market can be used for bread making, cakes and biscuits. Whole meal flour can be used for bread making. YEAST There are two kinds of yeast i.e. raw and dry yeast. It is convenient to use dry yeast because its handling is simple and its preservation is easy. It is important to remember that approximately have as much dried yeast as fresh is required in any recipe and that reconstitution is necessary before using dry yeast. This is done by soaking the yeast in lukewarm water (85 Degree F) containing ½ measure of sugar to ½ of water. The water and sugar used for reconstitution should be subtracted from the quantities given in the recipe. Sugar can be omitted, but the proving is necessary than with fresh yeast. Yeast is a living plant which requires warmth (80 – 85 degree F), food and liquid so that it can live and reproduce. The ingredients and utensils used in bread making and the atmosphere which the bread is produced must, therefore, be lukewarm as sudden cooling hinders growth and anything hot will kill the yeast. OTHER MATERIALS Carbon dioxide is produce in cookery in the following ways By using bi-carbonate of soda with something containing acid By adding baking powder By using yeast which feeds on sugar mixtures and produces carbon dioxide.  Water – remember, hard water is not desirable in the production process. Packaging and Wrapping materials The packaging materials enhance the acceptability of a product, you must therefore, ensure that you design your packaging in a way that promotes and advertises your product. PROCESS DESCRIPTION The production process involves the following sequence of operation- 1. Air Sifter with pneumatic conveyor- Flour should flow into air sifter to be sifted and to eliminate obstructions and is conveyed tothe hopper of the mixer by the pneumatic conveyor. 2. Mixing 3. Dough divider 4. Rounder 5. Proffer machine 6. Molding machine 7. Second fermentation 8. Oven-fermented dough pieces are baked in the oven 9. Cooling conveyor 10. Slier and wrapper-cooler products are sliced and wrapped DETAILED EXPLANATION OF PRODUCTION PROCESS BREAD is produced by making dough from wheat flour and treating this with carbon dioxide produce by yeast fermentation. Salt is included in the dough because it regulate the rate of fermentation, toughens the gluten, and prevent the bread from being insipid in paste. The proportion of water needed to make the dough varies with the nature of flour but usually, it is in the region of 1:12 of flour. The water used to make the dough is brought to a temperature that will give the finish dough a temperature of 75 – 80 degree F. The proportion of yeast needed depend upon the propose duration of the fermentation and can be calculated approximately by dividing 12 by the number of hour that will elapse between the mixing of the dough and the placing of the dough in the oven.  When bread is to be made by what is known as the straight dough system, the required proportion of flour, yeast, salt, water and any other ingredient such as fact, sugar, bread improvers, are mixed together until a homogenous dough is obtained and this is then covered over and allowed to ferment in bulk. When about three quarters of the proposed bulk fermentation time has passed, the dough is kneaded or ‘knocked back’, so as to expel much of the gas and to tighten up the dough. It is then covered once more and allowed to complete it. At the completion of the bulk fermentation, the dough is divided into two pieces of the required weight, and operation known as ‘scaling’ and each of these pieces is moulded into a ball.After a short period in which they can cover from action of the scaling and rounding up, the dough pieces are moulded into the shape required for the type of bread being made. These finally, moulded dough pieces are placed in baking tins and allowed a fermentation period, which is known as “final proof”, so that they can become once more, inflated with gas, seems much of the old gas would have been expelled during the moulding operation. The proving period, normally occupies from 25 – 40 minutes, according to the type of bread being baked. At the end of this final proof, the tins containing the dough pieces are placed in the oven and baked. The baking temperature is 450 – 500 Degree F, and the baking time, from 40 – 50 minutes. FORMULATION FOR BREAD Wheat flour 100kg Water 60kg Yeast 2kg Salt 2.25kg Sugar 2.5kg Vegetable oil 2.0kg MACHINERIES AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR BREAD 1. Flour sifter & Pneumatic Conveyor 2. Dough mixer 3. Tempering tank 4. Dough divider 5. Moulding machine 6. Final molder  7. Proofer, overhead type – 310 trays 8. Baking oven. Electrically heated or coal fire depending upon production capacity 9. Bread cooler, overhead type 10. Bread slicker. Question 1. Leavened and unleavened bread, what essentially makes the difference? 2. What distinguishes wheat bread from the plain white bread? 3. What is the item of materials most bakers prefer to use in making a dough rise and why is the use of it being discouraged by NAFDAC? (B) - CONFECTIONERY INTRODUCTION Quality confectionery is of great nutritional value and forms an important part of a balanced diet.it combines sugar and glucose in an easily digestible form and thus provides one of the best methods of replacing energy which human body continuously spends, through physical and mental exertion. The confectionery industry attends a position where it could provide quality goods capable of standing favorably in comparisonwith the products of any country of the world. In recent past, the confectionery industry has made considerable progress and has also contributed its due share towards the growth of small scale enterprises development in the country. The confectionery industry has a vital role to play as an important food industry on a decentralized basis in the rural and semi-rural areas to provide additional employment and to meet local demands. TECHNICAL ASPECT 1. Process outlines Confectionery manufacturing is a simple process which involves mixing the ingredients, cooking, addition of color and flavoring materials etc. as well as, moulding on machines. It is wrapped with papers then packed in tin containers or polythene bags for retail sale. 2. Quality specification  There is NAFDAC specification for confectionery items. It is desirable to look into the basic ingredient of cake making. Cake belongs to the category of confectionery items that is in high demand, especially those for ceremonial purposes such as marriage, birthday etc. the basic ingredients of cakes are flour, shortenings, eggs, sugar and milk. Eggs will aerate approximately their own weight of flour and consequently if more flour than eggs is used S in a cake recipe baking powder must be added to aerate the surplus flour. A typical recipe for good quality cake is - Flour 100 Shortening 35 Eggs 40 Sugar 9.5 Baking powder 2.5 Milk 6.0 3. Machinery and equipment Furnace (coal fixed or electric), automatic “Plast-o-plast” rotary machine, sizing machine, simple press, revolving pan, roller, cutter, roller frame, packing tables, weighing machine with weights, miscellaneous such as polythene bags, sealing machine, plastic buckets, ladles, jars etc. 4. Flavours However skillful a confectioner may be in bringing his goods to perfection in texture and appearance, all his labour would have been in vain, if he has been unwise in the selection of the flour used. Well made products badly flavoured are as harmful as the reputation as less skillful prepare article which appeals to the plate. 5. Colour styling and decoration The artistic tinting confectionery is the utmost importance, only secondary in flavouring. It is well known that it please the eye will materially help to gratify the palate. Also all that is unsightly difficulty find flavor, however, pleasant the flavor may be. An attractive appearance is therefore a necessity for everything which is intended to appeal to the taste. So also are shapes and appropriate styling, decorations and wrapping are of utmost important when displayed. Questions 1. Identify five confectionery products and describe their product processes.  2. What is the marketing viability of the products identified above? 3. What food items constitute confectionery category? (C) - PRODUCTION OF READY-MADE GARMENTS AND DESIGNER WEARS (TAILORING AND FASHION DESIGNING) Introduction The trade is generally called Tailoring and Fashion Designing but it goes much deeper than the ordinary run-of-the-mill, road-side or corner-street tailoring outfit or the seamstress type of outfit. And, no wonder, the emphasis here is, on the production of readymade garments and designer wears. This particular business line has a very wide scope, the extent to which professional in this field can diversified at will. PRODUCTS AND ITS USES As the name itself implies, the readymade garments are garments ready for wearing. Woven garment is a basic need for all human being. The trend for using the readymade garments is increasing day by day. Ready to wear garments have received acceptability in the local as well as export markets, mainly due to low cost of production, saving of cloth as well as saving of time. Manufacture of readymade garments is very simple and easily manageable. Machine and raw materials which are required to start this industry are locally available. The scheme envisaged for setting up a unit of ready to made wear garments is also indigenous. Items generally produced in this way are normally, cotton shirts, pajamas, petticoats, blouses, safari suits and suits of various types. Nowadays, some native dresses have won acceptance in to the readymade fashion outfits, and any dress, provided it shall be quite acceptable to all and sundry. MEASUREMENT Measurement is the very first and important step in dress making. The ability to measure accurately is a very vital aspect of dress making and it leads to correct cutting of cloths. The instrument for measurement in fashion designing is called tailoring rule or measuring tape. It has numbers ranging from 1 inch to 60 inches and on the other side; it has the metric scale i.e. the meter rule. THE BODY STRUCTURE Fashion designers must be careful to measure accurately because the human structure differs greatly from one another such that people have what is called balance and unbalanced shape. A balanced lady measurement for instance is as here-under: 15 inches shoulder 32 inches burst 30 inches waist 34 inches hip The unbalanced lady may be either too big or too small, and in any of these categories care must be taken to measure accurately. CUTTING The cutting stage is another important stage in dress making. This stage requires a total concentration of the fashion designer to cut the materials as accurately measured. The parts to be cut, depending on the measurement taken are;- Neck, Shoulder or back, Burst, waist, Hips, Length Here, we show example on how to measure and cut before joining. 1. Measuring of shoulder The tailor will need to stand at the back. It is either you measure from shoulder to shoulder or from shoulder to wrist. Shoulder is divided by two after the division, you add 1 inch for the sewing allowance. 2. Measuring of burst To measure burst, the tailor should allow the tape to be a bit loose unlike the measurement of waist shoulder etc. which are usually tight. The burst is measured by the tailor standing directly in front of the client. 3. Measurement of waist  In measurement of waist, the actual size of the waist is to be taken and be divided by 4 and the allowances to be added is 3 inches or 2 at the side seam. E.g. a waist that is 24 inches should be divided by 4 will be 6 inches when you added 6 inches tolerance, which will give you 9 inches. 4. Measuring of Hip The actual size of the hip measured is divided by 4 e.g. 32 inches hip divided by 4 is 8 inches plus 2 inches at side seam, equals to 10 inches, now the hip to be cut will be 10 inches. 5. Measuring of length The length is measured full length minus band plus seam and hemming allowance when measuring i.e. if it is for skirt. 6. Measuring of knee tight In measuring the knee tight for skirt, the actual size is divided by 4 plus side and slit seam. E.g. if knee tight is divided by 4 = 8 + 1 + ½ = 9 ½ inches Making of the garment The different quality fabrics in different colours, design and texture are spread on table and are cut with hand scissors as per required size and shape of the garment. The cut pieces are stitched by lock-stitch sewing machines. Button holing, button stitching, hook attachment etc. is usually employed as appropriate. The garment are then pressed and packed in packets in to the cartons. QUALITY CONTROL STANDARDS The garments are to be manufactured as per approved sample and in accordance with the market trend and fashion in vogue. This may be copied so long it is acceptable to the buyers. The only quality control measures and precautions to be taken is quality of workmanship in stitching and quality of materials as well as consideration for the purchase of fast colours.  MACHINERY AND THE EQUIPMENT 1. Foot operated sewing machine 2. Over-lock sewing machine 3. Industrial embroidery machine 4. Tinko embroidery sewing machine 5. Industrial weaving machine 6. Ordinary sewing machine 7. Button hole machine 8. Measuring tape, marker, scissors etc. 9. Electronic iron 10. Pressing table RAW MATERIALS Clothing materials, sewing threads, button hooks, collars and boxes for attractive packaging, cotton linings etc. QUESTIONS 1. How do you attract customers to your readymade garment business 2. How to you ascertain the quality of your certain wears? 3. Detailed the machineries and equipment employed in tailoring trade? (D) - PRODUCTION OF PACKAGED WATER 1. ACCEPTABLE SOURCES OF WATER (i) Spring water – water from the spring must be collected into a reservoir at the shortest possible distance from the source to prevent environmental pollution. There should be no need to subject this source of water to chemical treatment. (ii) Borehole water – the depth of the drilled borehole must be below the sea level and it should be equipped with the submersible pump to pump out the water. The borehole must be suitably positioned topographically, from the septic tank and there must be a good distance (e.g. 30 meters) separating the two of them. The minimum of the borehole should be 150ft.  NOTE:well water and deep well water are not acceptable. This is because in most Nigeria cities the general mode of disposal of sewage is by use of cesspools, septic tanks and pit latrines. Except for very few factories now, there are no sewer and modern sewage plants. Consequently, ground water is polluted to a high degree by seepage from various sources (sewage ponds, refuse dumps, leaching of fertilizers, pesticides from agriculture, detergents, radioactive wastes etc.) (iii) Public main water – the water must be running freely into the factory. Lifting of water with tankers from another location to the factory is not acceptable, in order to avoid cross-contamination of the water. 2. WATER TREATMENT AND PURIFICATION This depends on the quality of raw materials and can be subjected to any or a combination of the process described below: i. Chemical coagulation, flocculation and setting –chemical coagulants used are mainly aluminum salts like aluminum sulphate (alum) aftercoagulation and hocculation, it may be necessary to neutralize the carbonic acidity or other forms of acidity in the water by the use of suitable base like the hydroxide of sodium or calcium. This process removes micro pollutants of particulate nature. ii. Softening hard water or hardness removal – hardness does not affect the sanitary quality of the water, but is of important in the domestic use of water, particularly, for laundry and boiler purpose. Calcium and magnesium salt, the principal minerals constituents of hard water, consume soap and precipitate as insoluble compounds and soap curds. Until all the calcium and magnesium in the washing water of precipitated, no ladder or washing action is obtained from the soap (creating a waste of soap or money). iii. Temporary hardness in water (i.e. calcium and magnesium bi-carbonates) can be removed by heating the water prior to use. Chemical treatments involving the addicting of hydrate lime (calcium hydroxide) are also effective in softening such waters. Hardness caused by sulphate and chloride of magnesium or calcium, refers to as permanent hardness is not remove by the above treatment but can be removed by ion exchange techniques  i. Aeration – the water is aerated by exposure to air (oxygen), e.g. by spraying, a process which helps to eliminate odour, objectionable taste, ferrous and manganese ions. Iron and manganese always occur together in most Nigeria borehole water. The effect of the oxidation is to oxidize the soluble ferrous oxide to insoluble ferrous oxide, soluble manganese oxide to the insoluble form to nitrify ammonia (removal of odour) increase the oxygen content and therefore improve the taste of water. ii. Sand filter – the water can be filtered by passing into a graded sand filter bed after sedimentation (and sludge removal) in order to remove the suspended solid which are particulate size. It is important to note that filter must be washed at regular interval depending on the rate of filtration and the amount of suspended matter in the water. Poor back washing adversely affects the production rate of the filter. iii. Activate carbon filter - this special filter removes objectionable colour, taste, smell and excess chlorine (after chlorine disinfection) iv. Industrial micro filters- these remove very line suspended particles and large microbes or bacteria from the water. 5 micron, 2 micron, 0.5 micron filter thread sizes are recommended. v. Disinfection of water - Disinfection of portable water which s necessary for the destruction of pathogenic micro-organism in the water can be achieved by the following means – Chlorination – gaseous chlorine or chlorine compound such as chloride of lime or calcium hypochlorite are used. The active disinfectant is chlorine. i. The problem of effective chlorination is to ensure: Uniform applications of chlorine to all portions of the water being treated, ii Uninterrupted application of chlorine iii Selection of the dose of chlorine to meet the current needs of the specific water being treated. iv. Control of chlorination so as to produce safe portable water that is at the same time of attractive character. However, chemical/filtration system has recently being faulted by the World Health Organization (WHO). This is because the Trihalomethane compounds that are formed as a result of this treatment are carcinogenic and also many bacteria have been discovered to be resistance to chemical disinfection. a. Ozone – Ozonization is a very attractive method of disinfecting water. It is also very infective in the removal of taste, odour and colour (it has a bleaching effect) from the water. The ozone has to be generated has needed by passing thoroughly filtered and dried air through tubes or between plates where high-voltage electric discharge occur, charging part of the oxygen or of the air to ozone ( 0₂ to 0₃) b. Ultraviolet light – the water to be sterilized must be clear and the lamps must be kept clean at all the times. The treatment is made compulsory by NAFDAC, in order to achieve high level of purity. It should be properly encased (not exposed as it is dangerous to the body), and installed just before the filling point. c. Boiling – boiling destroys all forms of disease organisms usually encountered in water, i.e. bacteria, spores, cercariae, cysts and ova. The water must however, be brought to a “rolling” boil to be safe. The appearance of bubbles, (simmering) is sometimes confused with boiling, as it is the appearance of mist or steam over the water. None of these sciences is sufficient indication that water has reached a boiling temperature. These deposits are hard to remove and can harbor bacteria, as well as introduce sediments in the water. For these reasons, boiling for the purpose under discussion is not recommended. 3. Approved standard for potable water Portable water must be free from chemical substances and micro-organisms in amount that could be hazardous to health. It must be organoleptically accepted and aesthetically attractive. It is expected to meet the World Health Organization (WHO)standards which are also the adopted by NAFDAC for portable drinking water. 4. NAFDAC requirement in a water packaging plants i. Factory and location/ layout – the water processing plant should be located in a non- residential areaand never within the residential house or premises. The factory building should be walled off from external inference. Provision should be made for the raw materials and finished products storage, processing or water treatment room, packaging room, cloak room, toilet facilities for workers etc. the factory must not be situated near a refuse dump, abattoir, grave yard, soak-away, pit or oil deport; as these are possible, sources of contamination. Space for production should be sufficient to allow for free movement of personnel. ii. Personnel and welfare – the key officers are the production and the quality control managers, who must have a sound knowledge in food science and food processing. Educational qualification in relevant field of science like Chemistry, Biochemistry, Micro-biology, Food science etc. is compulsory. The workers must be properly kitted with overalls, headgear, hand gloves, mouth and nose guard etc. they must always be medically certified fit to handle food meant for public consumption. iii. Equipment – water holding tanks in the plant at different stages should be of suitable materials, e.g. Stainless steel or plastic (PVC). An automatic filing or sealing equipment is preferred to manual packaging in order to avoid human contamination of the processed water. Taps should of stainless steel. Wash-hand basins should also be stainless steel N.B: Connecting pipes should be made of Polyvidchloride or stainless steel. Iron pipe should not be used because they tends to rust and contaminate the water iv. Quality control procedure – there should be a well-equipped in-house quality control laboratory to cater for physic-chemical and micro-biological analysis of the raw and process water. In the absence of these, the service of this, the services of a government approved public analyst can be engaged. A copy of the letter of agreement between the two parties of these effects should be made available to reflect that regular analysis of the product would be carried out. All laboratory reports must be well documented. PACKAGING MATERIALS Ensure that packaging materials are made from good grade materials. The printing should be made under hygienic conditions i. Production room outlook – should be well lit and ventilated (preferably air conditioned), fans are not allowed:  Floor – well cemented, preferably tiled  Drainage – adequate to allow smooth flow of water  Wall – walls around the taps should be tiled from the floor to a height of about one foot from the taps. The rest of the wall should be painted with oil paint.   There should be U.V fluorescent light for the sterilization of the air  All demarcation should done with cement block  Every members of water fillings staff should occupy a separate compartment or is adequately separated from the next filling  Personal hygiene of every filling/scaling staff should be checked to ensure that no member has:  Fresh open wound  Cold(running nose cough)  All the production should wear head gear, nose mask and hand gloves. Movement to and from the production room should be restricted. Standard operating procedure (SOP) – S.O.P should be prepared for :- Production Cleaning Quality control (viii) Packaging materials stores – these should be well arranged. Empty bottles should be put on pallet, while sachet should be store on shelves or cabinet away from the ground. They should be well lit and ventilated. Sterilization of packaging materials and air with ultra-violentfluorescent tube is advice. (ix) Finished product store – bags of water should be stored on pallet in a tidy, well lit and well ventilated room. (vi) Fumigation – should be carried out quarterly and documented (vii) Fire extinguisher – should be available and strategically located (viii) Refuse disposal – waste buns should be kept covered and disposed hygienically with approved local authority (ix) First aid box – should be provided. QUESTION: 1. What effects do business licenses have it and those who cannot obtain the licenses and general public? 2. There are two aspects of quality control in food industries, mention them in detail 3. How do production of sachet and bottled water differ and what do they have in common?  (E) - FIRE CLAY BRICKS AND BLOCKS Introduction: Fire clay bricks and blocks are refractory products which are used in all industries base on heat operation. Their major requirements are in the iron and steel industries. They are required not only in the primary construction of furnace and also for their repair and maintenance. As regards the requirement of difference categories of refractory of steel industries; the demand keeps increasing from day-to-day mainly because of their use in the building of boiler’s fire chambers. TECHNICAL ASPECTS (a)Process outline Fire clay grog (bunt fire clay or fire bricks in powdered form) are the chief material required for fire clay bricks and blocks. Powdered fire clay and grog in right proportion are first clay mixed and then wet mixed. This can be done manually. The mixed mass of fire clay and grog is left soaked for a day or two before it is charged into horizontal trough mixer. The mass is plugged in the pug mall and cut into bricks in the wire-cotton table attached to the pug mill. When semi-dried, these bricks are repressed in hand-press to affect the correct dimension. They are then sent to dry sheds. After drying sufficiently, the bricks are stacked and fire in down-draught kiln at 1300 Degree Celsius. MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENTS 1. Jaw crusher 9” by 4” manganese steel- jaw plates self-contained with suitable motor bolt 2. Edge-runner mill, bottom stone, 30” diameter, 4ft by 12ft face and runner complete with motor, starter, V-belt etc. 3. 7” Diameter-top driven revolving dry pan with perforated grates and receiving pan underneath complete with suitable motor, starter etc. 4. One single decked and one double decked vibration screen electrically heated complete with electrical drives, heaters and other accessories 5. Double shaft horizontal trough mixer with suitable motorized starter 6. Horizontal plug mill fitted with a wire cutting table, capacity 2-3 ton per hour with suitable motor, starter and pulleys 7. Hand press for repressing the bricks’ wheel 8. Wheel barrows, iron dies, wooden moulds, driving shelves, soaking pit etc. 20ft diameter furnace with chimney of 30ft high 9. Testing instruments and its equipment 10. Electrification and installation charges RAW MATERIALS AND OTHER CONSUMABLES Fire clay, Grog, and steam coal, water source etc. (F) - BLOCK MAKING FOR BULIDING CONSTRUCTION This is straight-forward, since all it requires are cement, sand of right quality and water in right aggregates. They are mixed in the right proportion and cast in the moulds. These blocks are either manually or mechanically pressed through the hydraulic pressing machine. To reduce the cost of production, they are usually sited near the source of the raw materials. Having one’s own tipper Lorries for the transportation of the raw material and finished product is of economic advantage. QUESTIONS 1. Where fire-clay bricks used and what are the advantages over other types of blocks? 2. Who are the potential buyers of fire-clay bricks? 3. Describe the entire process of making blocks usually in house-building HAIR DRESSING, BARBING AND COSMETOLOGY Introduction It is pertinent to mention that one can be quite successful in this trade as long as one is imaginative innovative and persistent. Through, operation of a hair dressing and cosmetology has always been female dominated but lately the profession has become an all-comers affair with many men running their own hair boutique and cosmetology outfits. It has been on record that people (male and female) have made success of this enterprise process and methods. ‘Action learning’ is the most significant method of becoming proficient in this type of trade. The trainee must as a result of what he/she has seen, be ready to practice and perform certain tasks when told to do so. He or she must also be able to appropriate what he has learnt independently and without supervision. At the start, trainees are introduced to different instruments and equipment in use. They are made to familiarize with the work, and in practice they are also made to watch and then practice each of tasks involved. LEARNING PROCESS Trainees on these vocations would watch and practice and the activities involved until the key tasks are mastered. Sometimes, trainees are to be taught to engage both hands in order to ensure fastness. Each task is then follow up according to the level of complexities of operation. (G) - HAIR DRESSING Hair dressing simply means cutting or styling hair in order to change or maintain a person’s image or outlook. This is achieved by using a combination of hair manipulating or texturing techniques. DIFFIRENT TYPES OF HAIR DRESSING STYLES  Weaving and making of hairs into different styles such as Braiding, weave-on fixing, Ghana weaving, hair bonding, perming, jerry curls and hair togging.  Retouching the hair with relaxer cream  Plaiting of the hair in different styles  Wave-on styles  Ghana weaving styles  Hair bonding  Shuku  -Koroba  -Patewo  Kolese  Ipako – Elede  Panumo  Moremi  Kojusoko MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENT IN USE Comb and Brushes Electronic grooming equipment Use of picking comb after setting to make different hair styles Scissors HAIR DRESSING EQUIPMENT Hair dryers, stove and bowls, rubber and hand gloves, hair brush etc. HAIR DRESSING ACCESSORIES AND RAW MATERIALS Hair attachment Weave-on Thread, Wool, hair relaxer,hair cream, soap, gel etc. HAIR DRESSING FURNITURES Hair styling chairs Hair styling trolleys Reception place CONCLUSION Hair dressing is highly in demand among women-folks and is highly profitable. BARBING  The instrument and equipment required are very simple and few. Essentially the following are required Mirror, Electric Clippers, Scissors, Brushes, Face Towel, Shoulder Apron, Disinfectant kits, Chairs, Grooming kits, etc. The appearance of the barbing shop or the barber dictates whether a client would be exposed to infections or not. We should ensure that they are known and are educated on how they can adhere to the boost practices. It also important they use quality barbing and grooming kits to avoid damage to the scalp and infections such as Rashes, Bumps, HIV and aids. They must make sure they don’t expose their clients to infection. The services that can be rendered at the barbing salon are Hair coloring, styling and retouching. The ways you should package yourself determine the quality of your client and how much money you make. Features such as Barbing hygiene, styling and equipment management are the areas to not concentrate one’s attention on, that is the way to change the public perception that barbing is not a lucrative venture. (H)- COSMETOLOGY This is the process of making the face more attractive this, if carried out properly creates the desired effect such as making one to look younger and enhances one’s beauty. PROCESS AND APPLICATION: This is done by the application of different make-ups such as paints, cream and powder of different types to produce certain desirable effects. Also in use in addition to these are Eye- liners, Eye pencils, and lip stick of different colors and so on. The process proceeds to some aspects such as toning as well as pruning look longer painted and attractive (manicure and pedicure). Manicure and pedicure are carried out in the same salon or boutique to cater for those who may be interested in these services. It involves smoothing mind that is no end to this process as it may extend to Hair Treatment as well. CONCLUSION If we should remember that women can go to any length to beautify themselves hence, they are ready to pay any price to achieve it. Men also are following suit in this direction, therefore, having a salon where all these are being carried out is a worthwhile venture. For setting up this type of business, decision on location should be of important consideration. QUESTIONS  1. What does the name ‘boutique’ imply? Is boutique operation a viable business proposition? 2. Describe the work of a cosmetologist as a profession 3. What else can be successfully added on to the trades mention above? (I) - POULTRY AND ANIMALS FEEDS Introduction Poultry feed occupies an important position in the agricultural and industrial economy of the county.Though the annual production of eggs has registered a rapid increase during the last 20 year, the pace has to be accelerated to meet the nutritional requirement of the people. To attain the target required for annual production poultry with a view to ensuring availability of eggs and broilers to more people the production of balanced poultry feed has become essential. With this anticipated development of poultry farming industry, the production of balanced poultry feed has become essential. Efficient chick starter and growing mashes as given below, aid proper development of chicks and pullet. Protein, largely of vegetable origin in the growing mash, encourages the normal development of pullets and helps them to lie longer below is the all mash start that is being fed when chicks are 24hours old and it is continued until they are 6-10week old. At the end of 10 week, if chick is raised for layer, the pullets and cockerels should be separated and kept on the growing mash. The growing mash is fed until the pullets are 5 mount old in addition to the growing mash, the pullet should also be provided with scratch grain, oyster shell and clean water. TYPICAL POULTRY MASH COMPOSITRION Yellow corn meal or sorghum grain chips Finely ground oats or barley Wheat bran or rice bran Rice polishing Cotton seed meal Peanut meal or soya bean meal Edible vegetable leaf Fish meal or meat scrap Dried milk (skims or butter milk) Ground line stone or oyster shell Flour Bone meal or de-fluorinated phosphate salt Cod liver oil A practical laying mash consists of: wheat bran Rice polishing Groundnut cake or soya beans meal Fish meal or meat scraps Molasses The above marsh-starter is fed when chicks are 24hours old and it is continued until they are 6-10 week old, at the end of 10 weeks, if chicks are raised for layers, the pullet and cockerels should be separated and kept on the growing mash. The growing mash is fed until the pullers are 5 months old. In the addition to the growing mash, the pullet should also be provided with scratched grain, oyster shell and clean water. TECHNICAL ASPECT Process outline 1) The ingredients are pulverized in a grinder or pulverize to the required mesh size. The product is mixed and meshed in a vibrating screen to correct the particle size. The product size is packed in ordinary gunny bags or preferably in polythene lined gunny bags 2) The poultry feed is manufacture as per is specification No. 1374-1968. Ground lime stone Steamed bone meal Mineral mix Vitamin mix ANIMAL FEEDS Until a few feed years ago, the large scale food and beverage industries were having every week to pay large sums of money to contractors to remove and dump more than 100MT of spent products which had to rely almost entirely on imported feed stuffs for their animals. Now, it has been discovered that farmers are able to obtain less expensive feed materials obtainable from industries. Therefore, substantial industries have been created to convert the once useless by-product into valuable raw materials for animal feeds. The possibility for obtaining animal feeds from industries vary from sources such as brewery, cocoa industry slaughter lab to poultry and fishery houses. It is common these days, to find brewers using highly automated large scale presses and drying equipment to remove the high content of water from the waste product for preservation and scale. SOURCES Source of animals edible industrial waste products that can be salvaged for animals feed production are -Spent barley from brewery -Cocoa shell -Waste cocoa liquor -Waste cocoa butter -Spent animal consumable items from the bakeries and confectionery houses  -Animals bones and carcasses from the abattoir _Cow horns and animal bones and carcasses -Blood meal from dairy farm and dairy factories _ Dead animals from large scale farms These and many more animal consumable items, when compounded with other materials, are the economical nutritional feed for animals as well as poultry. CONCLUSION The business of collect product or waste products from industry is quite profitable in that what the companies would have spent a large amount of money to dispose of is what another person would collect and turn in to essential animal feed raw materials. It is however important to ensure, by proper preservation and health precautions, that the end product does not constitute hazards to end users animal or birds. QUESTIONS 1. What are the industrial waste products that are used in compounding animal feed? 2. What is the different between chicks feed ration and growers feed ration? 3. What are the essential feed ingredients for poultry birds? 4. Food and beverage industries are important sources of economic feed materials for poultry and animal rearing –discuss 5. What are the important feed supplements that can be obtained from the abattoir 6. Breweries waste, cocoa shell, corn shell are important animal feeds- how can you obtain them? (J) - LEATHER SHOES WITH LEATHER/RUBBER SOLE Introduction A shoe is an item of footwear intended to protect and comfort a human foot, while the wearer is doing various activities. Shoes are also used as an item of decoration and fashion. The design of shoe has varied enormously through time and from culture to culture, with appearance originally being tied to function. Though 90 percent foot wear is made in medium and large scale sectors, yet most of the units follow hand-made process. These days foot wear increasingly made in the small scale sectors and they have installed a few small machinery which help in maintaining some uniformity in quality but do not increase productivity. Making of shoes with the handmade process is a skilled job of craftsman and due to this reason, like other craft, there has been a rapid improvement due to innovation techniques. TECHNICAL ASPECT Process outline A quality of a product depends upon strict supervision and the use of correct materials as per specifications. All the components should be obtained from correct places in order to procure the material which is suitable for the particular components. Precisely graded pattern ought to be used for obtaining component of correct sizes and fittings. In closing section, a clear leather edge had to be created while lasting the lasted portion of upper and the bottom of sole should be properly roughed. If the portions are over roughed the fibers will be weakened and, if it is under roughed then proper penetration of the adhesive will not take place.At the time of roughing operation, care should also be taken not to rough the upper beyond the leather line. Any excessive roughening beyond the leather line will create a permanent damage and it will be beyond rectification. The adhesive should be properly applied to obtain permanent bound. After application of adhesive to both upper and the sole, they should not be disturbed till the time a proper tack range is obtained. Materials 1) Lining leather 2) Chrome upper leather 3) Vegetable tanned sole leather 4) Leather board for in-sole 5) Adhesives Machinery andEquipment 1. Pattern shears  2. Pattern vice 3. Grading pantograph 4. Upper skiving machine 5. Single needle post bed sewing machine (head only) 6. Zig-zagstitching machine (head only) 7. Flatbed sewing machine 8. Punching and eye-letting machine 9. Seam rubbing tool 10. Sole splitting machine 11. Double ended buffing machine with exhaust motor 12. Edge trimming and heal scouring machine 13. Cemented press 14. Brushing and padding machine 15. Trade mark embossing machine 16. Hand tools and other small equipment CONCLUSION Lately, high quality leather shoes are made in Nigeria and they can compete favorably with their imported counter-parts. Also, because of the cheapness of labour and easy access to the basic raw materials namely leather, Nigeria is in almost advantageous position to launch an aggressive drive for the market. Hence, there exist ample potentialities to tap this product for internal as well as export markets. QUESTIONS 1. Why is leather shoe making remain a craft profession? 2. Describe the processes involved in shoe-building. 3. What is prospect of shoe export to ECOWAS sub-region? (K) -TIE AND DYE Introduction Tie and dye as it is, colloquially interpreted, is a process by which materials for clothing is changed from their primary or ordinary colour, design or pattern. Tie and dye as a trade was once a traditional occupation of women whereby local dye-stuff from a plant leaf would be processed to become a black dye-stuff. The pattern made by used to be black and white only. It is called “Adire”. However, modernity has transformed the trade as it can be seen today that, in addition to functional utility, Tie and Dye clothing outfit have become fashionable. Tie and dye clothing because of changes in the manufacturing process, has also formed part of the dressing culture of the high profile people. To cope with the demands of most users, Tie and Dye clothing materials are now produced in many ways. The main objective is to make for special appeal to the high and low in the society. It has also found acceptability in the overseas markets. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT Mixing bowls, plastic spoon, rubber gloves, nose cover, cold and warm water, Raffia thread, wax of candle, Dye of different colours, Hydro sulphide and colours with Caustic soda Stove. PRODUCTION PROCESS The production process starts with the mixing of colours. Whereas, colour simply means the decomposition of white light, which is composed of the six colours in the spectrum i.e. orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. The colours are then broken down into:- 1. Primary colours: these are so called because they are the only pigments that cannot be obtained by mixing of colours. 2. Secondary colours: these can be obtained when two or more colours are mixed together in equal proportion, a different colours will result. This new hue is called secondary colours. They are colours such as green, orange, purple, Army green, Navy blue etc. HOW SECONDARY COLOURS ARE FORMED Itis important to know how to get the different secondary colours by mixing together different colours to suit the particular requirement of the work at hand. Below are the secondary colours combinations and formations  1. YELLOW + GREEN = LEAF GREEN 2. PURPLE + RED = WINE 3. RED + YELLOW = ORANGE 4. NAVY BLUE + BLUE = ARMY GREEN 5. ASH + YELLOW = ARMY GREEN 6. GREEN + BLUE = TURQUIOS 7. PURPLE + YELLOW = BROWN 8. PINK + RED = PINK RED 9. BROWN + RED = VIOLET 10. ORANGE + BROWN = ORANGE BROWN 11. BLUE + YELLOW = GREEN 12. RED + PURPLE = BROWN 13. ORANGE + PINK = RED 14. RED + BLUE = PURPLE 15. PURPLE+ BLACK = NAVY BLUE 16. BLUE +BLACK = POWDER BLUE 17. RED + WHITE = PINK 18. BLACK + WHITE = GREY 19. PURPLE + WHITE = LAVENDER 20. ORANGE + PURPLE = BROWN 21. BROWN + WHITE = TAN 22. RED + ORANGE = TANGERINE 23. ORANGE + YELLOW = GOLDEN YELLOW 24. PURPLE + RED = TURKEY RED 25. BLACK + BLUE = NAVY BLUE 26. RED + YELLOW + PURPLE = BROWN 27. GREEN +SMALL AMOUNT OF BLACK = FOREST GREEN TO DYE INTO COLOURS USE THE FOLLOWING PROCESS - 1. Get your dye materials ready. Use a good combination of the dye stuff + hydro sulphide + caustic soda + water. They are to be mixed together thoroughly for use.  2. Dip the cloth that has been tied with the raffia thread and covered with wax into the dye solution in (1) 3. Soak the cloth material into the solution for a period of about 10 minutes and continue to stir it for evenness. 4. The final preparation for removing the dye-stuff and drying method depends upon whether you use paraffin wax or other method 5. From here, one can toughen it by using starch and kerosene before hanging it to dry. Conclusion Colour preparation and choice of colour for the desired effect is the most aspect of this trade, and you must be careful that you are meticulous about the process you adopt since it is again a case of “garbage in garbage out”. Questions 1. How is the traditional method of tye and dye different from the modern production process. 2. How would you introduce the process of mass production into the system of tie and dye? 3. Where is the usual traditional production center of ‘Adire’? (L) - WASHING SOAP AND LAUNDRY SOAP Introduction Washing soap is an item of daily necessity and essentially a mass consumption item. Even though synthetic detergents are assuming importance day by day the demand for ordinary soap has not shown any decreasing tendency. Washing soap industry can be easily started even in the village to meet the local requirements. TECHNICAL ASPECTS (A) Process Outline There are three main conventional methods of producing soap namely cold process, semi- boiled process and full boiled settled process. The first two processes are particularly suitable for manufacturers having small capital outlay. Cold process essentially requires good quality oils and fat having higher saponification value. The acute shortage of these oils at present has resulted in a general shift towards the large adoption by small scale manufactures of semi-boiled process for soap making. Semi-boiled process offers the following noteworthy advantages over the cold process. 1. Lower grade of fatty stock can be employed for soap making. 2. Coconut, groundnut or any other edible oil is not essentially, although incorporation of a small percentage of coconut oil improves the quantity of the soap particularly lathering properties. 3. Higher rate of production of soap. This makes the process more economically. 4. Rosin, fillers and builders can be incorporated easily. Full boiled process or settled process is advantageous in comparatively larger production and particularly when it is desired to recover glycerine as a by-product of soap manufacture. The oil charge is taken in the pan which is heated slowly to melt the fat charge (approx. 700 C). Caustic soda solution of a required concentration is then added in small quantities at a time. A moderate heat is maintained and each addition of caustic soda solution is allowed to react with the oils before next addition is made. A hasty addition of caustic soda solution may result in gaining, while judicious working will keep the mass in the form of a smooth homogenous emulsion. If the mass shows signs of separation or graining, then further water should be added to bring the charge to a homogenous or “closed” state. Presence of such oils and fats in the oils charges as having high free fatty content result in a swift catch to soap formation, alternatively, a small quantity of soap scrap from the previous batch should be added to the pan so that the soap formation proceed smoothly. It takes about 1/2 hour depending upon the types of oil/fats used when the saponification takes a visible shape, after which the soap charge is brought to a boiling state which is to be so controlled that the soap charge is brought to a boiling state so that it does not boil over and at the same time as good boiling is ensured to complete the soap formation process. The soap charge passes through different stages en-route to complete soap formation. The mass thickens, gets increasingly transparent and finally assumes a particular shiny translucent surface free from froth. This stage is easily recognized by an experienced soap maker. Surfing is the last stage of the operation. It is advisable to reduce the fire under the pan considerably. The completion of soap is also judged by a crude test. When a small sample of the soap is lifted from the pan, cooled and a little quantity is placed between the thumb and finger and pressed. If the soap is pressed into a film shinning layer and further pressure peels it out in the form of shinny ribbons, then the charge has reached the completion stage. After the boiling operation is complete, the fire is withdrawn and the soap charged allowed, cooling somewhat in the pan with occasionally stirring. If any colour is to be added to the soap charge allowed, these should be incorporated a little before closing the boiling operation. Perfumes, if any, may be added after the soap charge in the pan has become a bit cool. The soap is now transferred to frame and allowed to set there. The set soap is taken out of the frames by opening the frames and cut into bars and tablets by means of a cutting machine and stamped with the help of a stamping machine. INCORPORATION OF BUILDERS AND FILLERS IN THE SOAP Builders and fillers such as sodium silicate, soap stone etc. Wherever required are added during the process of manufacture. Sodium silicate is usually added in the pan with thorough mixing either as much or after warming separately to about 60-700c when the Saponification has reached the final state. Soap stone, etc. can be added as such after the silicate is added by spraying it on to the surface of the hot shop in small batches intermittently with continued crutching. After the whole quantity of builders and fillers are added and thoroughly crutched in the soap is transferred to frames for subsequent cooling and cutting. Several other innovations and procedures for adding builders and fillers in the soap are in vogue to suit particular and individual requirements. GAINED PROCESS Soap prepared from very inferior and low grade of fatty oils tends to assume disagreeable colour, occur and texture. These could be improved substantially. Both in appearance and.texture by giving the soap charge one or more graining operations. For this purpose the oil charges is saponified completely in the pan leaving a very slight excess of free excess of free alkali by the process outlined above. A small quantity of common salt is now added to the pan and given a thorough mixing so that the same is dissolved completely. When the soap mass develops slight uneven surface, a sample is lifted on a trowel and titled slightly allow to the soap down gently. If the soap separates into small grains then further addition of salt should be stopped as on further boiling the grains will appear in the pan and the dye will settle at the bottom. After the graining operation the soap is allowed to settle when the iye collects much of the impurities, colours etc. Present in the oil stock. Some soap makers grain the soda with caustic soda solution also. The requirement of caustic soda for conversion of any particular oil/fat mixture to the soda can be computed with the help of a table. The grained soap is then closed with the addition of the requisite quantity of water and boiling. Builders and fillers etc., if required, are added now and the soap charge is allowed to cool and transfers to frames. Equipment required for detergent or grained soap Dryer or in the alternative, you may use a combination of a drum and a boiler.  Sealing machine  Weighing scale Raw materials Caustic soda 3 standard measures Soda ash 2 standard measures Sulphuric acid 3 measures of milk tin Ammonia solution 3 measures of milk tin Ammonia solution 1.5 measures of milk tin Palm kernel oil 6 litres Colorant To taste Perfume To taste PRODUCTION PROCESS  Soak your caustic soda in water in the required quantity. Use your hydrometer to test the concentration after it has been dully soaked for 2 days.  Measure the Soda Ash and dilute it with the required proportion of water (*3).  Measure the palm kernel oil into boiling tank e.g. drums and places it on fire  Mix the caustic soda and kernel oil together.  Turn thereafter the other chemicals into soap solution one after the other as follows – soda ash, euphoric acid, ammonia solution and hydrogen peroxide. Heat and allow the water to dry off   After the drying stage add perfume. Remove detergent from the dryer/boiler. Stir it very well and spread in a cool place to make it to cool down.  In case you are using boiler drum as your dryer, use a mechanical process to keep it in the required granular from. Questions: 1. What are the most important ingredients for soap making 2. What are the risk associated with the making of soap 3. Discuss the traditional soap making process.  (M) - ICE CREAM PRODUCTION Introduction Ice cream is a frozen and flavoured food product containing milk as the main ingredient since it is deficient in proteins, vitamins and mineral salts. It cannot be used as the sole item of food. The composition of ice cream varies to a marked degree from other dairy products. Ice cream from standard recipes is produced on a large scale by Fan Ice Plc. The Major ingredient required for making ice cream is butter fat, milk, sugar and water with other ingredients. The total solid contents of the ice cream vary from 38 to 41 percent. The mix is wimped before freezing so as to incorporate air in the form of air bubblers, the ration of increase in volume to the original volume as percentage s known as the overrun. Higher increases the yield vat too high overrun makes the product frothy, showy and flaky in texture. Stabilizer like gelatine enhances the quality and appearances of the ice cream. It absorbs any excess water thus reduces the formation of large ice crystals flavours and colours are added just prior to freezing. Fruits, nuts, candies, etc. are added after freezing. MANUFACTURING PROCESS First of all ice cream mix is prepared and liquid ingredients are placed in the vat first and start heating and stirring at once. After placing the liquid ingredients in the vat, add dry ingredients and start agitation. No lump should be formed when adding powdered non- fat milk. Then the ice cream is pasteurized in exactly the same way and for same reasons as milk. Pasteurization is done after all dairy ingredients have been added but before addition of material harmed by heat such as flavours, fruits, nuts etc. are added after freezing. Pasteurization unit should be such designed that it should give high viscosity mix. Usually pasteurization is sufficient at 70 degree c for 30m minutes. The mix strained through metal screen to remove any neither lump nor foreign matter from the mix. The mist now homogenized to reduce curd tension and to produce creaminess sand richness. Homogenization produces the desired emulsion by reducing the fat particle size. A total pressure of about 130kg/cm is sufficient, homogenization and pasteurization can be combined as the former requires temperature of about 60 degree c. This is done to prevent bacterial growth and increase shelf life. It is therefore, cooled rapidly to STO 10 0c. The final temperature of the mix is maintained to 50degrees c. In order to absorb excess water by protein and the gelatine, aging or storing of cooled is done by plants for 24 hours. Before frozen of the mix, flavours are added with fruits and nuts after freezing. Next operation is freezing which is done to produce partially and to incorporate air into ice cream. For freezing ammonia is most often used for refrigeration but brine freezers are still in use in some plants? The mix is usually drawn from the freezer when 15 to 30 percent of the total water has frozen to ice. The temperature at which the ice cream is drawn from the freezer usually ranges from -3 to -5degree c but usual criteria are the stiffness rather than the temperature. Ice cream thus obtained should be taken to the hardening room as soon as possible otherwise if partial melting takes place, the ice cream will have a coarse texture. This problem often crops up when ice cream is transferred to the packaging machine for filling small containers but this may be overcome by subjecting the small n packages to an air blast at 0-10degree c to freeze them very rapidly. After the first freezing, about 50percent of the remaining water is frozen through hardening operation. Temperature should be maintained between 4 to 12degreeC. The frozen product is parked suit the containers  FORMULATIONS Ice cream Total milk solids 22percent Total fat cream etc. 10percent Sugar 19percent Stabilizers 1percent Water 50percent Vanilla ice cream No.1 Fresh 20percent bream 16qt Fresh 40percent cream 5qt Sugar 121b Pure vanilla flavour 11/2 oz 100-grade citrus pectin 4oz The pectin is mixed dry wit the sugar. The sugar and the creams are placed in a large steam-bath copper pan over low heat and stirred until dissolve. When the begin to boil, it is removed from the stove and vanilla flavour is stirred in. The mixture is then strained, covered, and allowed to cool for about 1hour. It is then placed in the freezing machine, which is run at low speed for about 6 minute. The machine is then shifted to medium speed and run for 7 minute. The freezing time for a mixture of this size is 20minutes. The cream is then removed from the freezer and placed into ice cream cans. The filled cans are placed in the storage cabinet overnight and the cream is then ready to serve. This formula will produce a good smooth ice cream. It will yield approximately 40quarts Machinery 1. Batch pasteurization unit, capacity in liters 2. Homogenizer, capacity 200 liters 3. Surface cooler 4. Mix Aging & holding vat  5. Batch freezer, capacity 200 liters 6. Hardening tunnel 7. Brine tank for making candy novelties 8. Refrigeration system 9. Fitting and mold QUESTIONS 1. What is the difference between vanilla ice-cream and ordinary ice-cream? 2. What is the use of chiller in industry? 3. What are the ingredients required for making ice-cream (N) - CASSAVA STARCH Introduction There is good demand for starch adhesives for various domestic and industrial application. Kit can be used in the cold form and it does not have the undesirable smell of animal glue. Starch adhesive are comparatively less costly. Starch is a high polymeric carbohydrate with the approximate formula of (C6 H10 05).the structure of all green plants is such that they store starch as nourishment for the future. It is one of the fundamental substances in the vegetable kingdom and it is in existence abundantly in the natural world. Although there are various types of starch-containing plants, only a limited number of species can be used for industrial manufacture of starch of which cassava is found to be high yielding. Cassava is a topical plant of fibrous roots from which so many by-products for human and animal consumption are obtained. Production properties The production of starch is now on the increase from year with a number of uses not only in the paper and textile industries but also in dextrin manufacturing, sugar manufacturing, beer brewing etc. as starch is sometimes regarded as a waste product of cassava animal and human food derivative in there are requires filtering process of s