Understanding Foreign Policy and Diplomacy PDF

Chapter Two: Understanding Foreign Policy and Diplomacy 2.1. Defining National Interest National interest refers to set of values, orientation, goals and objectives a given country would like to achieve in its international relations. Objectives, visions and goals states aspire to achi...

Chapter Two: Understanding Foreign Policy and Diplomacy 2.1. Defining National Interest National interest refers to set of values, orientation, goals and objectives a given country would like to achieve in its international relations. Objectives, visions and goals states aspire to achieve The aspiration of a country, its policies and programs, emotions and debates It is the reason of state to justify its action and policy towards other states  Every country want to pursue their national interest based on their capability National interest encompasses:  National interest The preservation of physical identity: the maintenance of territorial integrity The preservation of political identity: the preservation of existing socio-political identity The preservation of cultural identity: ethnic, religious, linguistic and historical norms of the people. Holisti national interest is “an image of the future state of affairs and future set of conditions that governments through individual policy makers aspire to bring about by wielding influence abroad and by changing or sustaining the behaviors of other states”.  Colmbis has provided a multiplicity of criteria used in defining national interest, including  operational philosophy, moral and legal criteria, pragmatic criteria, ideological criteria, professional advancement, partisan criteria, bureaucratic-interest criteria, ethnic/racial criteria, class-status criteria and foreign dependency criteria. Operational philosophy Depending on time, location, your orientation toward the world around you. Ideological Criteria: Governments employ ideological criteria and establish their relations on the basis of those criteria. Moral and legal criteria Moral behavior, in international politics involves keeping your promise treaties, living and letting others live (the poor and the disadvantaged), Avoiding exploitation and uneven development between the developing countries and the developed ones. Acting legally means, abiding by the rules of international law to the extent that such rules are identified and accepted.  Partisan Criteria: Here you have a tendency to equate the survival and the success of your political party, or ethnic or religious origin with the survival and success of your country. Foreign Dependency Criteria: These criteria usually applies to less developing countries, who had fallen under the yoke/oppression/ of colonialism, and now, even after political independence, kept the colonial ties with their ex-masters intact. These countries are still dependent on their ex- colonial states for technical aid; expertise and technology, sometimes even for their security.  However, realist international scholars reject the ideological, legal and moral criteria to define and shape the contents of national interest. So, national interest in the competitive and anarchical international environment should be objectively defined in terms of ensuring survival and security of a state, than talking about justice and morality. On the other hand, idealists have strong belief in the relevance of legal, ideological and moral elements which realists fail to recognize as the constituting elements of national interest. So, national interest reflects the marriage of different criteria that include legal and moral criteria, ideological criteria and prudence or pragmatism-practical necessities on the ground.  2.2. Understanding Foreign Policy and Foreign Policy Behaviors Foreign policy refers to the sets of objectives and instruments that a state adopts to guide its relation with the outside world. 2.2.1. Defining Foreign Policy Foreign policy refers to “the set of priorities and percepts established by national leaders to serve as guidelines for choosing among various courses of action in specific situations in international affairs.  Foreign policy also involves specific instruments and tactics that must be employed to realize those objectives and goals. The most widely employed instruments include, diplomatic bargaining, economic instruments, propaganda, terrorism (sabotage), and use of force (war). 2.2.2. Foreign Policy Objectives Foreign policy, just like any policy, sets short term, middle term and long term goals and objectives to be achieved in proportion to a state‟s capability.  Specifically, objectives include long, middle and short range based on the combination of three criteria, i.e. the value placed on the objectives the time element placed on its achievements the kind of demands the objective impose on others  Core Interests and Values (Short Range Objectives) Related to the self preservation of political and economic systems, the people and its culture, and the territorial integrity of a state. Still to day countries such as Israel and the United States pursue such policies called extra-territoriality. Extraterritoriality is there when the national interest and claims of a country is projected beyond the limit of its geographic boundary. Middle Range Objectives The variation is obviously due to the difference in the level of economic and technological progress, as well as the military capability. fulfilling material needs, economic needs, prestige of the nation Long- Range Objectives Those plans, dreams, and visions concerning the ultimate political or ideological organization of the international system, and rules governing relations in that system. 2.2.3. Foreign Policy Behavior: Patterns and Trends Foreign policy behavior refers to the actions states take towards each other.  Arnold Wolfers suggested that all foreign policy behaviour ultimately boils down to three possible patterns.  (1) Self-preservation, (maintaining the status quo), (USA). (2) self-extension (revising the status quo in one‟s own favor), (China,, india Brazil, and Germany)  (3) Self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some else‟s favor) (LDCs)  2.2.4. Foreign Policy Dimensions The analysis of foreign policy behavior can also be done along a number of specific dimensions. These dimensions include alignment, scope and modus operandi. 1. Alignment In particular whether national leaders choose to ally with certain countries or to remain neutral. A country‟s alignment behavior can vary from time to time during its history in response to changing circumstances and policy decisions.  Yet one can identify the alignment tendencies such as alliance, neutrality and non-alignment. a. Alliances: are formal agreements to provide mutual military assistance; as such, they carry legal weight and certain benefits as well as risks. b. Neutrality: is a stance of formal non partisanship in world affairs. c. Nonalignment: has been the foreign policy pattern of most developing state during cold war. Most developing countries had a movement-Non Alignment Movement (NAM) in which they called for a new foreign policy path/choice/ to be followed disregarding the both the West and East bloc politics and alliances.  2. Scope Some countries have extensive, far-reaching international contacts, while other countries have more limited activities abroad. a state can identify at least three patterns of foreign policy behaviors. Some actors act in Global terms, others as Regional terms, and those that follow policy of Isolationism. 3. Mode of Operation/ “Modus Opernadi’ Some countries often rely on multilateral institutions to address different issues. Still others very much rely on unilateral means.  2.2.5. Instruments of Foreign Policy Diplomacy Diplomacy can be defined as a process between actors (diplomats, usually representing a state) who exist within a system (international relations) and engage in private and public dialogue (diplomacy) to pursue their objectives in a peaceful manner. Diplomacy is conducted openly or secretly, multilaterally or bilaterally, tacitly or formally, by ambassadors or leader-to-leader, the essence of diplomacy remains bargaining.  Bargaining can be defined as a means of settling differences over priorities between contestants through an exchange of proposals for mutually acceptable solutions. Diplomatic bargaining is used primarily to reach agreements, compromises, and settlements where governments objectives conflict. Rules of Effective Diplomacy Be realistic: It is important to have goals that much your ability to achieve them Be careful about what you say: The experienced diplomats plans out and weighs words carefully.  Seek common ground: Dispute begins negotiations; finds common ground ends them successfully. Understand the other side: One is to appreciate an opponent‟s perspective even if you do not agree with it. Be patient: it is also important to bide your time. Being overly anxious can lead to concessions that are unwise and may convey weakness to an opponent. Leave avenues of retreat open: it is axiomatic that even a rat will fight if trapped in a corner.  Call it honor, saving face, or prestige/status/; it is important to leave yourself and your opponent an “out”. In general, states make considerable use of what are known to be “carrot and stick” approaches when they rely on such diplomatic tactics such as threats, punishment, promise, and rewards. Economic Instruments of Foreign Policy States often uses their economic muscle to influence the behavior (action, perception and role) of others.  States may reward or punish states through the manipulation of economic policies. The specific techniques that can be used to reward or punish constitute various control over the flow of goods between countries including, tariffs, quotas, boycotts, and embargos. Tariff -The tariff/tax/ structure can be used effectively as an inducement or punishment when a country stands to gain or lose important markets for its products by its upward and down ward manipulation.  Quota: To control imports of some commodities, governments may establish quotas rather than tariffs. Boycott: A trade boycott organized by a government eliminates the import of either a specific commodity or the total range of export products sold by the country against which the boycott is organized. Embargo: A government that seeks to deprive another country of goods prohibits its own business men from concluding its transactions with commercial organization in the country against which the embargo is organized.  Loans, Credits and Currency Manipulations: Rewards may include favorable tariff rates and quotas, granting loans (favorable reward offered by the major powers to developing countries) or extending credits. Military Aid: probably the oldest type of aid which had been used for buttressing/defense/ alliances. Foreign Aid: The transfer of money, goods, or technical advice from donor to recipient-is an instrument of policy that has been in international relation.  Foreign aid is often used for achieving political and economic objectives of the donors. Most aid programs are obviously not undertaken solely for humanitarian purpose, for a vast portion of the aid goes to a few countries-and sometimes not the countries with the most pressing needs. 2.3. Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia 2.3.1. Foreign Policy during Tewodros II (1855- 1868). Throughout his reign Tewodros tried to develop a dynamic foreign policy that reached out beyond the Horn Region. He sought the Western Christian world to recognize his country and help him to modernize his country.  Moreover, as Keller has put it “he appealed specifically to Britain, France and Russia as Christian nations to assist him in whatever ways possible in his fight against the Turks, Egyptians and Islam”. The emperor attempted to establish his diplomatic relations to fight his immediate enemies claiming Christianity as instrument of foreign policy. However, the emperor‟s passionate demand for modern technology and skilled man power from Britain was not concluded to his satisfaction as the latter sent religious missionaries. Consequently Tewodros took desperate measures by taking hostage of several British missionaries including the consul which was responded with the British Millitary Expedition (Keller). Tewodros‟s Troops were easily defeated and the King did not surrender but tragically committed suicide.  2.3.2. Foreign Policy during Yohannes IV (1872- 1889) Like his predecessor, Yohannes considered Islam as a threat to the territorial integrity of the polity. Indeed Egypt tried to put a serious security threat in its continued attempt to invade the country under many pretexts, yet its motive was to control the source of Blue Nile. These, however, were not successful as Egypt faced subsequent defeat both in 1875 and 1876 at the Battle of Gundet and Gura respectively (Keller). In addition to Muslim threat, the emperor saw European expansionism as greater threat to the survival of the country. In fact his calculation of threat has turned out to be real as Italy got a foot hold at the port of Massawa in 1885.  This colonial ambition of Italy was reflected by the Foreign Minister speech “The Red Sea is the key to the Mediterranean” implicating the strategic importance of Ethiopia (Novati). However, the emperor died fighting with the “Mahadists”. The Sudanese resistance groups against British rule happened to invade Western Ethiopia because of their presumption that Yohannes IV was collaborating with the British. 2.3.3. Foreign Policy during Menelik II (1889-93) Menelik was the King of Shoa region before his coronation as the Kings of Kings of Ethiopia.  He had expanded his sphere of influence towards the far South and East incorporating new areas and communities peacefully or otherwise. According to many Ethiopian historians, the southward expansionism policy of the King was mainly targeted to have access to Sea Port, Zeila. Minelik was aware of the strategic importance of outlet to the sea for the country as he felt that the country‟s access to the sea in the North had fallen under Italy‟s influence since the mid 1890s. Before the death of Yohannes Italy had good diplomatic relation with  Menelik with the objective of weakening its immediate enemy in the North, Yohannes. Menilik comfortably exploited the opportunity to consolidate his power, perhaps to deter Yohannes and bolster its expansionist policy to the south. Menelik‟s relation with Italy had disappointed Yohannes as witnessed by the absence of Menelik from participation in the war against Mahadists. Following the death of Yohannes, however, Italy continued to be the main challenge in the North. Italy expanded towards the hinterland of Ethiopia from its first hold of Bogess, later named Eritrea, and Missawa port crossing Tekeze river. Menelik was cautiously following such colonial expansionism of Italy.  The emperor followed double track diplomacy to contain or reverse Italy‟s expansion and maintain the territorial integrity of his country. On the one hand, he entered many treaties and agreements to solve the challenge amicably. One of the remarkable treaties was the „Wuchalle‟ friendship and peace treaty where the parties agreed to avoid war and solve the problem peacefully. On the other hand the emperor was preparing himself by accumulating military ammunitions to defend the aggression from any side of colonial powers, British, French and of course Italy. However, the emperor‟s diplomatic endeavor with Italy failed to result in peace due to Italy‟s misinterpretation of the controversial article 17 of the ‘Wuchalle’ treaty.  The treaty did contain different meanings and interpretations in the respective languages of the parties. According to the Italian version, Ethiopia failed under the protectorate of the former which then led to the abrogation of the „Wuchale‟ treaty by Ethiopia in 1893. As a result, Italy prepared for war and started its systematic penetration of the country from the north. Menelik was prepared to reverse this aggression raising his traditional Army till only 1896. In 1896, the emperor declared nation-wide war against Italy in defense of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the century old nation. After a severe battle, Menelik and his people managed to defeat the colonial power.  The significance of the Adowa victory is loud and clear as many European powers recognized Ethiopia as an independent African state on similar footing with the Europeans. Indeed Britain, France, Russia and the vanquished Italy came to Menelik‟s Palace to arrange formal exchange of Ambassadors. Moreover, these powers signed formal boundary treaties with the emperor. In fact the present boundary of Ethiopia vis -a-vis its neighbors had been defined at least on paper. With the exception of Sudan and of course present day Eritrea (being ex-colony of Italy) the boundary of the country with French Somaliland-Djibouti, Kenya (former British colony), and present Somali (Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland) had been defined on paper, yet were not demarcated.  As the boundary issue was not settled, there have been disputes and counter claims with the neighboring countries especially with Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea. Of course Somalia claims huge portion of the territory inside Ethiopia. What so ever the case may be, Ethiopia‟s foreign policy of the forth coming rulers has significantly been informed by the notion of territorial integrity of the country. And the issue of outlet to the sea remained the burning question determining its policy and role in the region.  2.3.4. Foreign Policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I (1916-1974) Menelik died in 1913 and it was not until 1930 that the next strong emperor Haile Selassie I, assumed the throne. He was dedicated to the creation of a stronger, centralized and bureaucratic empire with unquestioned respect by the international community. This was clear as early as 1923, when as Regent to the Crown, Teferi Mekonen, facilitated Ethiopia‟s entry to the League of Nations. Ethiopia‟s membership in the League of Nations was clearly instigated by the ever present danger of invasion by Italians.  When the Italian Fascists finally invade Ethiopia between 1936 and 1941, the Emperor fled to London and established a government in exile. From there he journeyed to Geneva, Switzerland, to make a plea before the League of Nations for aid in defense to the country. Ethiopia played significant role in Africa in fighting for African independence and to end colonialism and apartheid. The establishment of the organization of African Unity in the capital of Ethiopia witnessed the prominent role of the emperor in African affairs as well.  Ethiopia also played a significant role in maintaining international peace and security by commit ting its troops for peacekeeping operations in Korea in 1951 and the Congo in 1961. The emperor‟s strategic alliance with outside powers helped him to stay on power for decades. In this regard British military aid and assistance helped him to restore and consolidate his power again by eliminating his potential rivals at home. Directly or indirectly he distanced potential rivals first with help from the British and later on with the help of USA military and technical assistance.  Over all he managed to consolidate his power at home and stayed on power over four decades. The emperor secured the territorial integrity of the country and also secured port through Eritrea, yet the abrogation/law ruins/ of the UN imposed federation arrangement of Eritrea remained one of a foreign policy challenge to the military regime who came to power through coup de‟tat. So was the question of Ogaden. 2.3.5. Foreign Policy during the Military Government (1974—1991) The military regime that took control of state power in 1974 adopted a foreign policy largely oriented to socialist ideology.  The primary objectives of the foreign policy were survival of the regime and maintaining the territorial integrity of the country. Apart from these, restructuring the society along socialist lines was also considered as the foundation for the foreign policy motives at home. The major strategy to achieve the stated objectives heavily focused on building the military capability of the country. And force had been employed as the best strategy to silence rebel at home and prevent the perceived external enemies of the country.  Since socialism was the guiding philosophy of the country, friendship and alliance with socialist countries of the world was considered as a viable strategy for realizing socialism at home and perhaps in the world. The corner stone of Ethiopia‟s foreign policy at the time was maintaining continuing friendship with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries. In general the adoption of socialism and its subsequent impact on the foreign policy of the country could be considered as a departure from its predecessors; however the policy objective of the country remained unchanged.  The country‟s policy towards its neighbors, the region, and the Arab world remained unchanged. 2.3.6. The Foreign Policy of Ethiopia in the Post 1991 With EPRDF‟s rise to power the country adopted a new foreign policy orientation and objectives. In the post 1991 period, Ethiopia‟s foreign policy is driven primarily by the quest to ensure national interest and security. As such, othe survival of the multi- national state.ne of the goals of the foreign policy is to ensure National interest of the country is understood in terms of realizing the real interest of the people mainly democracy and development.  It refers to the primary interest of the people to live freely from poverty, disease and ignorance. In this regard, foreign policy has been considered as an instrument to solve the domestic problems of the country, including; lack of good governance, instability and lack of economic development. This strategy is called an “inside-out” approach. The other foreign policy strategy is building up the military capability of the country. Peaceful dialogues and negotiations will be employed to peacefully coexist with others. Diplomatic solutions can always be taken prior attention when dealing even disputes.