Chapter 7 Why Pursue National Interests? PDF

20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:10 PM Page 142 Why Pursue National Interests? In an article in the Globe and Mail, Roy Rempel...

20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:10 PM Page 142 Why Pursue National Interests? In an article in the Globe and Mail, Roy Rempel wrote the following regarding Canada’s foreign policy: “ National interests ought to define Canada’s foreign policy … Chapter In the final analysis, our foreign policy must be about one 7 thing and one thing only—protecting and promoting the security and prosperity of Canada and Canadians. That is the national interest.1 A somewhat different perspective on national interest is offered in a report prepared by the Canadian Defence and Foreign Affairs Institute, an advisory agency to the Government of Canada: ” “ Canada deserves to have an influential voice in the international arena based on comprehensive foreign and defence policies that expresses Canadian political and social values, military capabilities, and economic strength. Canada should be willing to engage in action that is timely, constructive, and credible … Although Canada’s foreign relations run the gamut from sports policy to efforts to stop the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, the marked change in the world we live in today is rooted in the rise of global terrorism, the threat of the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, the lawlessness that has taken millions of lives inside failed states, and the shock of the attacks on the United States of September 11, 2001. Though trade will always be of overwhelming importance to Canada, trade relations have taken a back seat in the consideration of our closest neighbour and most important ally, the United States. The dominant issue now—and it is likely to remain so—is the politico-security agenda … The vitally important relationship with the United States, Canada’s role in international development and human security, the conduct of peace operations, and the organizational and other instruments required for the effective conduct of Canadian foreign policy under the new conditions we now confront are then treated in ” greater detail [in this report].2 1 Roy Rempel, “Foreign Policy,” special to Globe and Mail Update, 30 March 2006. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20060330.wcomment0330/BNStory/ National/home. 2 Denis Stairs, David J. Bercuson, Mark Entwistle, J.L. Granatstein, Kim Richard Nossal, and Gordon S. Smith, In the National Interest: Canadian Foreign Policy in an Insecure World, Canadian Defence and Foreign Affairs Institute, 2003. http://www.cdfai.org/PDF/In%20The%20National%20Interest%20English.pdf 142 Chapter 7: Why Pursue National Interests? 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:10 PM Page 143 Chapter 6 described national interests as a nation’s cultural, economic, political, religious, and military goals. The pursuit of these goals occurs when a nation actively works to achieve them. In the quotation above, Rempel states that the security and prosperity of Canada is in the national interest. This is one understanding of Canada’s national interests—is it yours? What about the perspective offered in the report by the Canadian Defence and Foreign Affairs Institute? What is their understanding of Canada’s national interest? Chapter Issue To what extent should the pursuit of national interests shape foreign policy? So far, the inquiry into the Main Issue for Part 2 (chapters 6–10): To what extent should national interests be pursued? has explored how nationalism influences the pursuit of national interests—you have examined how nations actually pursue these interests. In this chapter you will explore the motivations for the pursuit of national interests and the effect of the pursuit of national interests on shaping a nation’s foreign policy. The following inquiry question will be used to guide your exploration: foreign policy: a course of action that How did foreign policy initiatives before, between, and during a sovereign nation takes in its conduct the First and Second World Wars hinder nations’ national with other nation-states or international organizations interests? Nations can be very focused on their own needs when pursuing their national interests, as you saw in the first quotation opposite. These interests can contend with the interests of other nations. Sometimes, conflicts can arise because of contending national interests. Identifying In the past as well as in the present, some nations have had political nation’s needs leaders and governments that believe one of their primary responsibilities is to provide their citizens with an adequate standard of living. The problem that can arise from this goal is that there is a Relationships Relationships finite quantity of resources available to satisfy the needs and with nations with nations that share that have wants of nation-states. Most nations must deal with other similar Pursuit of opposing national nations in order to meet their people’s needs and wants, ideologies interests that ideologies including security, and it is in this way that foreign policy shape foreign comes into play. There are also historical and contemporary policies examples of political leaders and nations whose priorities and foreign policies were not conducted in the best interests of their citizens. This chapter focuses on the historical pursuit of national Justifying Identifying nation’s interests and foreign policies that shaped the peace settlement of nation’s needs and goals the First World War and contributed to the Second World War. goals By investigating the Chapter Issue, you will consider multiple perspectives related to the pursuit of national interests during the ▲ Figure 7-1 peace settlements of the First World War. How did Germany, Italy, Consider these factors when analyzing and Japan on the one hand, and Britain, France, and the United States the Chapter Issue: To what extent on the other hand, pursue their national interests during the interwar should the pursuit of national interests years? On what were these pursuits based? shape foreign policy? Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 143 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 144 SP Thinking Like a Historian S K I L L P AT H Assessing the Impact of Past Events All history becomes subjective; in other words there is properly no history, only biography.3 —Ralph Waldo Emerson The authors of historical accounts try to be as accurate as possible, using only verifiable facts—and the most important facts—to present the story of an event. Ralph Waldo Emerson tells us that a historical event is always the story of the people who lived it. History, then, is almost always an interpretation. The Treaty of Versailles was the peace treaty that was signed between the representatives of the victorious powers and Germany on 28 June 1919, seven months after armistice. One paragraph, Article 231—also known as the “war guilt clause”—is seen by some historians as central to the spirit of the Treaty. In this Skill Path you will explore the reactions of various people to Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles. You will then, as a class, act as a panel of historians and discuss the following question: Should the war guilt clause have been included in the Treaty of Versailles? This exploration will help shed light on the relationship between a nation’s perceived national interests and its resulting foreign policy. Guiding Questions 1. Who were the authors of the war guilt clause? 2. What were the possible goals and motives of the authors? Were these goals and motives justified? ARTICLE 231 3. What were some of the reactions toward this document? The Allied and Associated Governments 4. What are some possible reasons for these reactions? affirm and Germany accepts the 5. Speculate as to why different people or groups responsibility of Germany and her allies reacted differently. for causing all the loss and damage to 6. Were any of these reactions justified? Why or why which the Allied and Associated not? Governments and their nationals have 7. Are there any views missing from these reactions? been subjected as a consequence of the What are they? war imposed upon them by the 8. To what extent was this document based on the aggression of Germany and her allies.4 pursuit of national interests? 9. What was the long-term significance of the Summarize the message of this paragraph document? in your own words. Examine the historical document Article 231, of the Treaty of Versailles. 3 Ralph Waldo Emerson, “History,” in Essays: First Series, 1841. 4 The Avalon Project at Yale Law School: “The Versailles Treaty June 28, 1919: Part VIII,” 1996. http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/partviii.htm. 144 Chapter 7: Why Pursue National Interests? 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 145 Step Collect Information actions must not amount to a lasting condemnation of a Read the reactions below. people. In spite of all they have done, the German people 1 A. The reaction of the German delegation is a great and noble nation.6 3. Germany is prepared to make the payments incumbent C. A French reaction on her [that Germany is responsible for] … up to a The Allied and Associated Powers therefore feel it maximum amount of 100 [billion] gold marks, 20 necessary to begin their reply by a clear statement of the [billion] by May 1, 1926, and the balance (80 [billion]) judgment passed upon the war by practically the whole of in annual payments, without interest … civilized mankind. 4. Germany is prepared to devote her entire economic In the view of the Allied and Associated Powers the war strength to the service of the reconstruction. She wishes which began on August 1, 1914, was the greatest crime to cooperate effectively in the reconstruction of the against humanity and the freedom of peoples that any devastated regions of Belgium and Northern France. nation, calling itself civilized, has ever consciously 9. The German delegation again makes its demand for a committed … neutral inquiry into the responsibility for the war and They were the first to use poisonous gas, notwithstanding culpable acts in conduct. An impartial commission the appalling suffering it entailed. They began the bombing should have the right to investigate on its own and long distance shelling of towns for no military object, responsibility the archives of all the belligerent but solely for the purpose of reducing the morale of their countries and all the persons who took an important opponents by striking at their women and children. They part in the war … commenced the submarine campaign with its piratical We are under no delusions regarding the strength of the challenge to international law, and its destruction of great hatred and bitterness which this war has engendered, and numbers of innocent passengers and sailors, in mid-ocean, yet the forces which are at work for a union of mankind far from succour, at the mercy of the winds and the waves, are stronger now than ever they were before. and the yet more ruthless submarine crews … The historic task of the Peace Conference of Versailles is to Justice is what Germany shall have. But it must be justice bring about this union.5 for all. There must be justice for the dead and wounded and for those who have been orphaned and bereaved that B. A Dutch editorial written at the time Europe might be freed from Prussian despotism.7 The peace conditions imposed upon Germany are so hard, so humiliating, that even those who have the smallest Step Analyze the Information expectation of a “peace of justice” are bound to be deeply Use the Guiding Questions opposite to prepare disappointed. 2 for a classroom debate on the question: Should Has Germany actually deserved such a “peace”? the war guilt clause have been included in the Everybody knows how we condemned the crimes Treaty of Versailles? Prepare your answer carefully, based committed against humanity by Germany. Everybody on the sources above, and any further sources you find knows what we thought of the invasion of Belgium, the on the Internet. Consider also what you know about the submarine war, the Zeppelin raids. actual causes of the First World War. Lastly, consider what Our opinion on the lust of power and conquest of you know about the causes of the Second World War. Germany is well known. But a condemnation of wartime 5 “Leader of the German Peace Delegation Count von Brockdorff-Rantzau’s Letter to Paris Peace Conference President Georges Clemenceau on the Subject of Peace Terms, May 1919,” in Primary Documents: German Delegates’ Protest Against Proposed Peace Terms at the Paris Peace Conference, May 1919. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_germanprotest1.htm. 6 “Dutch Algemeen Handelsblad Editorial on the Treaty of Versailles, June 1919,” in Primary Documents: Dutch Newspaper Editorial Against the Terms of the Paris Peace Conference, May 1919. www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_dutcheditorial.htm. 7 “Georges Clemenceau’s Letter of Reply to the Objections of the German Peace Delegation, May 1919,” on http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_germanprotest2.htm. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 145 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 146 Step Build toward a Position on the Question Step Take a Position on the Issue 3 a. Consider the experiences and feelings of the people giving the information above. 4 Record and justify your position on the issue: Should the war guilt clause have been b. Consider the points of view or perspectives of the included in the Treaty of Versailles? Use explanations, people giving the information. facts, and examples. Present your position in a short c. Consider any external information about the causes position paper or a letter to the editor, similar to the and the nature of the First World War, and the history Dutch editorial in Step 1. of the time (industrialization, imperialism and the resulting rivalries, nationalism, and so on.) d. Consider the history that followed the Treaty of Versailles (the Depression, the rise of Hitler, the causes and nature of the Second World War). Avoid imposing present-day values and judgments on the events. First and Second World Wars: The Pursuit of National Interests and the Shaping of Foreign Policy Question for Inquiry How did foreign policy initiatives before, between, and during the First and Second World Wars hinder nations’ national interests? While none of the major powers wanted a European war, they all pursued foreign policies that made such a war inevitable. The forces of nationalism, imperialism, militarism, and the formation of alliances are considered fundamental causes of the First World War. War was perceived by all the major powers as a solution to problems that stood in the way of them being able to pursue their national interests. First World War and the Pursuit of National Interests During the period leading up to the First World War, the following events took place: Nationalist rivalry increased tensions between nations. For example, France wanted to regain Alsace-Lorraine from Germany; Russia wanted to help the Balkan Slavs gain independence from Austria-Hungary; and Germany desired 146 Chapter 7: Why Pursue National Interests? 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 147 great-power status: colonies, a large standing army, and a navy Fast Facts that could rival Britain’s. Germany, formed in 1871, was seen as the annoying “new kid on the block,” while Germany saw A great power is a nation or state no reason why it should be excluded from great-power status. that wields influence on a global scale. This power can shift, Imperialism resulted in clashes between nations for control of depending on the nation or state’s undeveloped countries that had raw materials or were economic, political, military, and situated in strategic locations (for example, the Franco- cultural circumstances. Today’s German rivalry in Morocco, Franco-Italian rivalry for Tunisia, great powers include the United and Anglo-German rivalry in the Middle East). States, Britain, France, Russia, The forces of militarism led nations to increase military China, Japan, and Germany. spending and build up armaments. The military took on a Together, they control over half of more important role in government, especially in Germany the world’s economy, much of the (for example, the Franco-German race for larger armies, and world’s military spending, 95 per the Anglo-German naval rivalry, particular after Britain built cent of arms exports, and 99 per the all-steel battleship the Dreadnought). cent of nuclear weapons.8 A number of crises in Morocco and the Balkans cost every major power some prestige and resulted in frustrations and bitterness. The formation of alliances divided Europe into two armed Figure 7-2 ▲ camps: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Foreign policy has many “tools.” During Italy) versus the Triple Entente (Britain, France, and Russia). the period between the First and Second World Wars, nations developed a variety As you read this section, keep in mind the Chapter Issue: To what of foreign policy tools—not all of them extent should the pursuit of national interests shape foreign policy? diplomatic. How did each nation define its national interests? What foreign policy initiatives were implemented to achieve those interests? Were Treaties they successful? (e.g., the Treaties The First World War was set in motion when of Locarno of 1925) Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb, killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Diplomacy Non-Governmental (receiving and throne, on 28 June 1914. Princip belonged to sending of Organizations Young Bosnia, a group that wanted a union of diplomats) South Slavs (eventually the country of Yugoslavia) and independence from Austria-Hungary. The Foreign Policy assassination produced a domino effect. Austria- Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia, seeking to gain influence in the Balkan region, rushed to Tarriffs and Foreign defend Serbia. Germany declared its intention to Aid Trade stand by its ally, Austria-Hungary. Within weeks, the major nations had entered into conflict for various reasons, including international alliances, treaties, Military naval races, and disputes over territory. Forces 8 From: http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761590309/Great_Powers.html. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 147 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 148 Germany declared war against Russia on 1 August, after Russia ignored warnings not to mobilize its troops. Germany, geographically surrounded—and following its war plan, the Schlieffen Plan— launched a quick strike against France by going through the flat terrain of Belgium and Holland, thereby violating a treaty of neutrality guaranteed by Britain. Britain, to defend Belgium’s neutrality and come to the aid of its ally, France, declared war on Germany and its allies on 4 August 1914. The British Empire, including Canada, was now at war, allied with Serbia, Russia, and France against the German and Austro-Hungarian empires and Turkey. In 1915, Italy joined Britain, France, and Russia in declaring war on Austria-Hungary, thus causing Germany to sever diplomatic relations with Italy. America joined the Allies in 1917. Shaping the Treaty of Versailles Fast Facts In a speech to a joint session of the United States Congress on 8 January 1918, ten months before the war’s end, President Woodrow Germany and the other defeated Wilson outlined a blueprint for peace in Europe that could follow the powers were not directly involved First World War. The program, known as the Fourteen Points, included in the negotiations that took place a foreign policy applicable to all Allies that included free trade, open at the Paris Peace Conference. agreements, self-determination, and the protection of human rights. They were invited in only after The Treaty of Versailles was one of the specific treaties negotiated the terms of the Treaty were with the defeated powers at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. It completed by the victorious powers. dealt with a defeated Germany at the close of the First World War. The main authors of the Treaty were Georges Clemenceau (prime minister of France), Woodrow Wilson (president of the United States), David Lloyd George (prime minister of Great Britain), and Vittorio Orlando (prime minister of Italy). These men were known collectively as the Big Four. At the Paris Peace Conference, the members of the Big Four had separate agendas and vastly different national interests in mind when dealing with a defeated Germany. As you read about the expressions of national interests that follow, speculate what foreign policy initiatives each nation might wish to implement. At the conference, Clemenceau clearly wanted revenge. The war had shown that if Great Britain and the United States had not been France’s allies, its outcome might have been quite different. Clemenceau wanted to protect France against future German aggression, so he aimed Figure 7-3 ▲ to cripple Germany to such an extent that it would be unable to wage The Big Four, at the Hotel Crillon, in Paris, another war. 1919. From left to right: British PM David Lloyd George, Italian PM Vittorio Orlando, Lloyd George had promised the British people that Germany French PM Georges Clemenceau, and US would pay for damages incurred because of the war. He also wanted President Woodrow Wilson. to make sure that Britain could maintain access to its colonies and 148 Chapter 7: Why Pursue National Interests? 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 149 that a powerful German navy would not Spectrum of National Interests at the Treaty of Versailles threaten that access. Italy was originally part of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria- Hungary. Trieste, Trentino, and the Revenge—Make Germany Pay! Obtain Lands Peace Without Victory Dalmatia coast were promised to Italy by Clemenceau, Lloyd George Orlando Wilson the Allies, so in 1915, Italy joined the Allies instead of remaining with the Figure 7-4 ▲ Triple Alliance. Orlando was at the Paris Peace Conference to ensure The spectrum of national interests at that this promise of land was written into the Treaty of Versailles. the Paris Peace Conference Wilson was on the opposite end of the spectrum regarding the treatment of Germany. He did not feel that punishing and humiliating Germany was the key to long-term peace. Instead, his hope was to create a humane treaty with Germany. In the end, Clemenceau’s and Lloyd George’s demand for revenge and punishment won out over Wilson’s appeal for “a fair and just peace”. The victors chose to pursue perceived national interests rather than international interests, a decision that proved to benefit no one’s interest in the end. Orlando resigned after the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, having failed in his objective to obtain lands for Italy. Treaty of Versailles: Summary Statements 1. Germany’s army was to be reduced to 100 000 men (only career soldiers) and no tanks. 2. Germany’s navy was to be reduced and would not be permitted to build submarines. 3. There was to be no German air force whatsoever. 4. Alsace-Lorraine was to be returned to France. 5. Germany lost all colonies in Africa, China, and islands in the Pacific Ocean. 6. The Rhineland was to be demilitarized. Rhineland: a region on both sides of 7. Anschluss (union) with Austria was forbidden. the Rhine River in western Germany, including sections of vineyards and 8. Germany had to recognize the new countries of Poland and industry Czechoslovakia, created in part through the acquisition of former German lands. 9. Germany had to sign Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, the war guilt clause, which stated that Germany and its allies were responsible for the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914. Fast Facts Further, a Reparations Commission determined that Germany Due to inflation, US $33 billion in had to pay US $33 billion in reparations for death and damages 1919 would be about US $451 incurred by the victorious nations during the war. Eventually, billion in 2007. Germany paid US $713 million dollars in reparations. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 149 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 150 In what ways did the Treaty reflect the foreign policy of the signing nations? The causes of the First World War were not settled by the treaties that ended the war, or by events in the next 20 years. The same forces of nationalism, imperialism, militarism, and international alliances were also the basic causes of the Second World War. Added to these basic causes were the unanticipated weakness of the League of Nations (a dream of American President Wilson but rejected by America, which instead chose a foreign policy of isolationism after the war) and the economic devastation caused by the worldwide Great Depression that began in 1929. War continued to be a foreign policy option to pursue national interests. DENMARK SWEDEN 1914 Baltic Sea ▲ Figure 7-6 North Sea These maps show the territorial borders of countries and nations that existed in GREAT BRITAIN Europe before the start of the First World War and after the Treaty of NETHERLANDS Versailles. G E R M A N Y RUSSIAN EMPIRE BE LG IU M LUXEMBOURG FRANCE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE SWITZERLAND 0 200 km SWEDEN 1919 DENMARK Baltic Sea North Sea East Prussia GREAT West BRITAIN Prussia NETHERLANDS Posen G E R M A N Y BE LG POLAND IU Rh M in ela nd Silesia LUXEMBOURG Figure 7-5 ▲ Alsace- Lorraine CZECHOSLOVAKIA FRANCE This photograph, taken around 1919, shows German warplanes being dumped AUSTRIA in a Munich scrapyard as a result of the Treaty of Versailles, which stripped SWITZERLAND 0 200 km Germany of its armaments. 150 Chapter 7: Why Pursue National Interests? 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 151 Ideas and Opinions PAUSE AND REFLECT “ ” Speculate about how the Treaty of This is not a peace. It is an armistice for twenty years. Versailles might have contributed —Ferdinand Foch, quoted in Ruth Henig, Versailles and After, to the conditions that led to the 1919–33 (New York: Routledge, 1995), p. 52. Second World War. Consider the perspectives of all Marshall Ferdinand Foch was a French commander of the Allied armies. He made the nations involved in the the above comment regarding the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919. Treaty of Versailles, including Was Marshall Foch in agreement with the outcome of the Treaty of Versailles? What Germany. Do you consider this a do you think Foch meant by this quotation? What kinds of problems can you fair treaty? If not, how might you foresee by the French pursuit of revenge against Germany in 1919? rewrite it to make it fairer? Ideas and Opinions “ A German school textbook from Ideas and Opinions the 1930s asked students to consider the following math problem: “ The Germans are going to pay every penny; they are going to be squeezed, The iniquitous Treaty of Versailles, ” as a lemon is squeezed, until the pips squeak. imposed by the French and the English, enabled international plutocracy to —British Conservative Party politician Sir Eric Geddes, in a speech at steal Germany’s colonies. France herself Cambridge, 10 December 1918, in Josh Brooman, The World Remade: acquired part of Togoland. If German Results of the First World War (New York: Longman, 1985), p. 5. Togoland, temporarily under the administration of the French Woodrow Wilson was the president of the United States during the First World imperialists, covers fifty-six million War. He spoke the following words on 22 January 1917, less than a year before the square kilometers and contains a war ended. population of eight hundred thousand “ It must be peace without victory … Victory would mean peace forced people, estimate the average living ” upon the loser, a victor’s terms imposed upon the vanquished. It would be space per inhabitant. accepted in humiliation, under duress, at an intolerable sacrifice, and would leave a sting, a resentment, a bitter memory upon which terms of peace would rest, not —Peter Neumann, ” permanently but only as upon quicksand. The Black March (New York: Bantam Books, 1958), p. 17. —Woodrow Wilson, addressing the US Senate on 22 January 1917. The Black March is an autobiographical How do Wilson’s and Geddes’s points of view help us understand how journal of a young German man who Germany’s national interests may have shaped its foreign policy after the served in the German military during peace settlements? the Second World War. What does this math problem illustrate about German attitudes regarding the Treaty of Versailles? What does this math problem foretell as Germany’s future foreign policy? Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 151 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 152 PAUSE AND REFLECT Write the summary statements of the Treaty of Versailles (found on p. 149) in the left-hand column of a chart like the one below. In the right-hand column, identify which nations would have been satisfied with each statement’s outcome. Summary Statement: Nations Satisfied with Outcome: Using the chart you created, identify which nations would have been dissatisfied with the Treaty, and why. Is It the Victors Who Write History? Many historians now agree that all hands. In the last fifty years the Imperialism of all the of the major European powers held European States has chronically poisoned the international some responsibility for the outbreak of the First World situation. The policy of retaliation and the policy of War in 1914. However, when peace came in 1918, it was expansion and the disregard of the rights of peoples to the victors who dictated the terms of peace to the determine their own destiny have contributed to the illness defeated powers. Germany had no option but to sign the of Europe, which reached its crisis in the world war.9 Treaty of Versailles, regardless of how unfair Germans What foreign policy might a defeated, humiliated, and thought it was. The German perspective maintained that embittered Germany consider adopting in order to Germany should not have to shoulder all of the blame for pursue its national interests? the war. French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau wrote a Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, the leader of the German letter of reply to the objections of the German peace delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, expressed his delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, dated 16 June opinion of the outcome of the conference: 1919. He wrote: It is demanded of us that we shall confess ourselves to be That is why the Allied and Associated Powers have insisted alone guilty of the war. Such a confession from my lips as a cardinal feature of the Treaty that Germany must would be a lie. We are far from declining all responsibility undertake to make reparation to the very uttermost of her for the fact that this great World War took place or that it power; for reparation for wrongs inflicted is of the essence was fought in the way that it was … But we energetically of justice. That is why they insist that those individuals deny that Germany and its people, who were convinced who are most clearly responsible for German aggression that they fought a war of defense, were alone guilty. and for those acts of barbarism and inhumanity which Nobody will want to contend that the disaster took its have disgraced the German conduct of the war, must be course only in the disastrous moment when the heir to the handed over to a justice which has not been meted out to throne of Austria-Hungary fell the victim of murderous them at home. 9 Excerpts from a translation of the address of Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, 7 May 1919, President, German Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, reported in “The Peace Treaty at Last,” The Guardian, 18 May 1919. 152 Chapter 7: Why Pursue National Interests? 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 153 That, too, is why Germany must submit for a few years to from the competition of a nation whose industries are certain special disabilities and arrangements. Germany has intact and have even been fortified by machinery stolen ruined the industries, the mines and the machinery of from occupied territories.10 neighboring countries, not during battle, but with the What are France’s national interests, according to the deliberate and calculated purpose of enabling her quotation by Clemenceau? How might the pursuit of these industries to seize their markets before their industries interests shape France’s foreign policy? could recover from the devastation thus wantonly inflicted upon them. Germany has despoiled her neighbors of everything she 1 Identify parts of the Brockdorff-Rantzau quotation that could make use of or carry away. Germany has destroyed reinforce German national interests. the shipping of all nations on the high sea, where there 2 Assuming that the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh, was no chance of rescue for their passengers and crews. It how should the victors have treated Germany? is only justice that restitution should be made and that these wronged peoples should be safeguarded for a time Expansionism—One Aspect of Foreign Policy Generally, when nations are dissatisfied with their state of affairs, their governments make plans to resolve the perceived needs and wants of the nation. During the interwar period (1919–1939), and especially after the Great Depression, a common position held by the leaders of Germany, Italy, and Japan was that they needed more land in order to accomplish their goals. Racial and economic factors, and empire building, were part of the rational they used to justify a foreign policy of expansionism. Governments make decisions when pursuing national interests and foreign policies that affect their nations as well as other nations. How far should a nation be willing to go to promote its agenda? How far should a nation go in ignoring others in the process? Should a nation take by force what it believes it needs and deserves? What is the difference between nationalism and imperialism? After the Depression, Germany, Italy, and Japan pursued policies of expansionism to build their empires and gain resources and markets. These three nations fostered extremely nationalistic policies, and convinced their respective citizens that it was their right to take territory from “lesser” nations. These aggressive actions set the stage for the Second World War. 10 “Georges Clemenceau’s Letter of Reply to the Objections of the German Peace Delegation, May 1919,” in Primary Documents: Allied Reply to German Delegates’ Protest Against Proposed Peace Terms at the Paris Peace Conference, May 1919. http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_germanprotest2.htm. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 153 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 154 Japan’s Expansionism The influences of the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries greatly changed European and North American technologies and societies. In contrast, Japan remained an isolated nation, unaffected by foreign influence and without advanced technologies until the beginning of the 19th century. But from 1853 to 1900, Japan swiftly changed from a feudal, agriculturally based society to a nation that was industrialized and modern by European and North American standards. With its new technology and military strength, Japan began to pursue a foreign policy that the Japanese government believed emulated the foreign policies of the United States and European nations. The Japanese government believed that Japan had a right to colonize in the Pacific; as an Asian nation, it had an obligation to liberate other Asian nations from European and American domination. By the 1930s, Japan felt that European nations that had colonized the Pacific region should be expelled. At this time, the British controlled Malaya and Singapore, the French controlled Indo-China, the Dutch controlled the East Indies, and the Americans controlled the Philippines. Japan, having very few natural resources of its own, needed other Asian nations to supply it with the raw materials, markets, and land necessary to support its large population. This idea of Japanese domination of East Asia became known as the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Fast Facts RUSSIA N In order for the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere to become a Mongolia reality, Japan had to neutralize the Manchuria four major American and British military bases in the Pacific: Japanese Territory Singapore, Hong Kong, the U.S. Territory Philippines, and especially Pearl CHINA JAPAN British Territory KOREA Harbor, in Hawaii. French Territory BURMA PACIFIC OCEAN ▲ Figure 7-7 This map shows the European and American colonies, as well as Japan’s INDOCHINA territorial acquisitions in Manchuria, PHILIPPINES Korea, and China, during the interwar SIAM 0 400 km period. 154 Chapter 7: Why Pursue National Interests? 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 155 Justifying Expansionism Araki Sadao was a military propagandist. His 1 In your opinion, could Japan quotation below echoes the feelings of many legitimately justify its pursuit of an Japanese and demonstrates how they were able, in overseas empire? their minds, to justify Japanese expansionism during the interwar period. 2 What kinds of moral dilemmas Should Japan remain content with 142 270 square miles, much of it barren, to exist when a nation tries to build feed 60 million mouths while countries like Australia and Canada had more an overseas empire? What other than 3 million square miles to feed 6.5 million people each?11 options are there? Manchuria Japan began to bring the idea of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere to fruition in 1931 in response to the effects of the Great Depression—the collapse of international trade brought about by the protectionist policies of other industrialized nations. Japan’s population had grown to 70 million by the 1930s, and the country was no longer self-sufficient in food production. Completely dependent on international trade, Japan desperately needed the natural resources of iron ore, coal, and arable land that were available in the northern Chinese province of Manchuria. The Japanese had already built railroads and invested large sums of money in the Manchurian economy. A Japanese military force was stationed in Manchuria to protect Japanese interests. On 18 September 1931, the Japanese-built South Manchurian Railroad was bombed; some believe the attack was staged by Japan itself. Japan used the incident as a pretext for a full-scale invasion of Manchuria. By 1932, Japan controlled the major cities and most of the province, and renamed it Manchukuo. The League of Nations sent a commission to investigate the incident and concluded that Japan was the aggressor. No consequences followed. Again, the guarantors of world peace—the major nations of the League of Nations, Britain and France—were preoccupied with the effects of the Depression on their economies and did not have the will or the support of their people to do more. This was the first test of the strength and the resolve of the League of Nations; it was found wanting. This was another signal to future aggressors (Hitler and Mussolini) that the watchdog of world peace had no teeth. Japan soon dropped out of the League and, in 1937, attacked China. The United States put increasing diplomatic pressure on Japan to withdraw from China. By 1941, however, the Japanese military government had plans to invade the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines, 11 Araki Sadao, quoted in Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking (Toronto: Penguin Books, 1997) pp. 26–27. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 155 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 156 and Southeast Asia. Japan knew that continued expansion meant war with the United States. Italy’s Expansionism The European rush to colonize Africa in the 1800s was not only driven by economic reasons, it was also based on nations’ foreign policies aimed at competing against other European nations to build colonial empires. In the space of 25 years, the African continent was rapidly colonized, which is why this colonization period is often referred to as the Scramble for Africa. Italy was late in entering the colonization, and as a result possessed only Libya, Eritrea, and Somaliland. When Fasci leader Benito Mussolini came to power in 1922, he began to cultivate the idea that a neo-Roman empire could be built. Figure 7-8 ▲ Italy had lost 600 000 men in the First World War and had spent In 1926, aboard a flagship enroute to millions of dollars on the war effort. Rampant inflation, decreased Genoa, Italy, Benito Mussolini wore an trade, and unemployment were problems Italians faced after the war. admiral’s hat. Mussolini sailed to Genoa to enrapture Italians with the idea of making the Adriatic and the Mediterranean Italian seas. Ideas and Opinions Fast Facts In 1932, fascist Italian dictator Benito Mussolini wrote this entry for the Italian Encyclopedia. “ Fascism is characterized by the For Fascism, the growth of empire, that is to say the expansion of the exercise of control over virtually nation, is an essential manifestation of vitality, and its opposite a sign of all aspects of the nation and its decadence. People which are rising, or rising again after a period of decadence, are people by its rulers. Propaganda always imperialist; and renunciation is a sign of decay and of death. Fascism is the and indoctrination are used to doctrine best adapted to represent the tendencies and the aspirations of a people, manipulate and control the like the people of Italy, who are rising again after many centuries of abasement and population. The needs of the foreign servitude. But empire demands discipline, the coordination of all forces nation supersede individual and a deeply felt sense of duty and sacrifice; this fact explains many aspects of the needs. Everyone is expected to do practical working of the regime, the character of many forces in the State, and the their best for the nation, and to necessarily severe measures which must be taken against those who would take joy in helping the nation oppose this spontaneous and inevitable movement of Italy in the twentieth ” become great and powerful. Nazi century.12 fascism, unlike Italian fascism, believed in a hierarchy of races. —Benito Mussolini, quoted in “What is Fascism, 1932,” The Aryan race was at the top and in the Internet Modern History Sourcebook. Jews were at the very bottom. Nazi fascism, claiming the right to take What, according to Mussolini, are the national interests that he wishes to pursue? the land of “inferior” people like How will this pursuit shape Italy’s foreign policy? Why does Mussolini believe the Poles and other Slavic peoples, that fascism is the best political way of thinking? assumed that war was inevitable. A strong military of totally loyal warriors was considered necessary. 12 From: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/mussolini-fascism.html. 156 Chapter 7: Why Pursue National Interests? 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 157 ▲ Figure 7-9 N French land This map shows Abyssinia, an independent Italian land country since 1896, when it defeated Italy. LIBYA Land under EGYPT British control FRENCH EMPIRE IN AFRICA ERITREA SUDAN ABYSSINIA ITALIAN 0 500 1000 km SOMALILAND Italy felt wronged by the outcomes of the Treaty of Versailles, as territory that had been promised to Italy before the Treaty was not delivered. The Dalmatia coast, where a significant minority of Italian- speaking people lived, and which had once been part of the Roman Empire, was given to the new nation of Yugoslavia. Mussolini thought that the pursuit of colonies overseas would bring prestige, wealth, and prosperity for Italians once again. He began to call the Mediterranean Sea mare nostrum, or “our sea,” and dreamed of the day when Rome would once again have colonies throughout Africa and the Middle East. This dream became the foundation of Italy’s foreign policy. Consider the Chapter Issue here: To what extent should the pursuit of national interests shape foreign policy? Follow the link on the Perspectives on Nationalism website to read a Abyssinia, 1935 first-hand description of the mustard Italy had begun to acquire overseas territory in the 1880s, when it gas victims in Abyssinia by took over Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. In the scramble for African Dr. J.W.S. MacFie, and the possible territory, Italy tried to conquer Abyssinia in 1896, but was defeated. In reasons why the international 1935, Mussolini planned to unify the two Italian colonies in Africa by community did not come to trying once more to conquer the nation of Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Abyssinia’s aid. Abyssinia contained farmland, as well as coal, iron ore, copper, and gold. Platinum had also been discovered in small quantities. On 3 October 1935, two Italian armies invaded Abyssinia from Eritrea and Somaliland. The Abyssinians were no match for the Italian Fast Facts army. Despite the fact that Italy had signed the Geneva Protocol in The Italian “super-colony” of 1925, which outlawed the use of chemical weapons, the army used Italian East Africa (Eritrea, mustard gas against Abyssinian soldiers and civilians during the war. Abyssinia, and Somaliland) lasted The Abyssinians suffered 16 000 casualties, and many thousands more only from 1936 until 1941. were executed by the Italians during the occupation that followed. The international community, struggling with the effects of the Depression, did little to stop this aggression. Britain could have closed the Suez Canal to Italian warships, but it did not. The League of Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 157 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 158 Fast Facts Nations issued a condemnation and an embargo, but the United States filled the gap, supplying the resources in fuel and material that The New York Stock Exchange Italy needed. Thus, a lack of resolve allowed Mussolini’s aggression to crash in 1929 set off a global chain succeed. This served as a green light to Adolf Hitler, confirming his reaction called the Great belief in the weakness of his potential foes. Depression. Investment capital shrunk. Banks called in loans and Germany’s Expansionism foreclosed mortgages. Unemployment soared, and After the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost economically important people lost their life savings as pre-1914 territory (see Figure 7-6 on page 150). Some of this territory hundreds of banks collapsed. became parts of the new states of Poland and Czechoslovakia. Because of economic Germany was forbidden to form a union with Austria. Uniting all of interdependence between the German-speaking peoples in Poland, Austria, and Czechoslovakia nations, world trade dried up as many nations adopted a protectionist foreign policy. As outlined earlier, this economic Neutral nations N crisis was a major factor in creating Axis nations the conditions that allowed for the Occupied by Axis early aggressions of Adolf Hitler Allied nations and Nazi Germany. Major battles FINLAND Allied forces Axis forces Leningrad NORWAY (Aug. 1944) SWEDEN ESTONIA ATLANTIC BALTIC SOVIET Fast Facts OCEAN NORTH SEA DENMARK LATVIA UNION IRELAND GREAT SEA LITHUANIA BRITAIN EAST to Stalingrad Lebensraum is a German term for Battle of Britain PRUSSIA (Aug. 1942Ò (July–Oct. 1940) London Amsterdam Berlin Jan. 1943) the idea that the 60 million NETHERLANDS Warsaw Kiev Germans living in Germany—as D-Day BELGIUM GERMANY POLAND (June 1944) Prague well as the 20 million German- Paris LUX. BOHEMIA Battle of the Bulge MORAVIA speaking people living outside of (Dec. 1944–Jan. 1945) SLOVAKIA the German borders in 1933—did SWITZERLAND HUNGARY FRANCE not have enough “living space,” Belgrade ITALY ROMANIA AL and that Germany therefore YUGOSLAVIA Bucharest UG BLACK SPAIN RT SEA deserved to add land to its empire. Madrid CORSICA BULGARIA PO Rome Istanbul ALBANIA SARDINIA SPA NIS HM ORO GREECE Athens TURKEY CCO Oran SICILY M E D MOROCCO IT E R R AN E AN S E A Tripol ALGERIA TUNISIA El Alamain (Oct.ÒNov. 1942) ▲ Figure 7-10 0 500 1000 km LIBYA The rise and fall of German expansionism, EGYPT 1939-1945 158 Chapter 7: Why Pursue National Interests? 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 159 became a priority for Hitler when he came to power. Ironically, this priority was based on the principle of national self-determination, a principle enshrined in the Covenant of the League of Nations. Ideas and Opinions While Adolf Hitler was in prison in 1924 after a failed coup d’état against the Bavarian government in southern Germany, he wrote Mein Kampf, or My Struggle. In this book, Hitler outlined many of his beliefs about what Germany should do in order to undo the injustices of the Treaty of Versailles and regain its position as a strong European power. “ German-Austria must return to the great German mother country, and not because of any economic considerations. No, and again no: even if such a union were unimportant from an economic point of view; yes, even if it were harmful, it must nevertheless take place. One blood demands one Reich. Never will the German nation possess the moral right to engage in colonial politics until, at least, it embraces its own sons within a single state. Only when the Reich borders include the very last German, but can no longer guarantee his daily bread, will the ” moral right to acquire foreign soil arise from the distress of our own people. —Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, translated by Ralph Manheim (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), p. 3. The idea of uniting the German people in a single empire was espoused by Hitler before he came to power. German self-determination was related to this idea. How did the national interests of Nazi Germany affect Germany’s foreign policy? ▲ Figure 7-11 Berlin, Germany, 13 March 1938. The Reichstag gives Hitler an ovation when he announces the annexation of Austria, or Anschluss. Part 2 Issue: To what extent should national interests be pursued? 159 20-1 Ch7 7/11/08 1:11 PM Page 160 Hitler thought the German government should provide the highest standard of living for its Aryan people. In the 1920s and early 1930s, Germany was highly dependent on its neighbours for resources and markets. The Great Depression of the 1930s underlined Germany’s dependence and increased Germany’s resolve to become more self- sufficient in food, oil, and other strategic raw materials. Second World War and the Pursuit of National Interests As you read this section, note the relationship between national interests and the ensuing foreign policies of each nation. When Adolf Hitler began to openly break the conditions set out in the Treaty of Versailles, the British and French governments, abandoned by an isolationist America, were struggling to deal with the economic turmoil of the Great Depression. These countries faced massive unemployment, lost savings, collapsed banks, and