War, Terrorism, and Globalization PDF

WAR in war. Passion represents the emotional and ideological Exploring the Relationship Between War, motivations for war; chance...

WAR in war. Passion represents the emotional and ideological Exploring the Relationship Between War, motivations for war; chance Terrorism, and Globalization acknowledges the inherent War and World Politics uncertainty and unpredictability; and reason reflects the strategic Definition of War: War is defined as calculations of leaders. organized violence between political entities, including both state and non- o Secondary Trinity: This state actors. Examples of political entities connects the primary trinity to include tribal peoples, nation-states, and the components of a political guerrilla groups. entity: people (passion), armed forces (chance), and leadership Types of War: (reason). o International war occurs Limited and Total War: between two or more sovereign states, like the Iran-Iraq War o Limited war is fought for (1980-1988). objectives that do not threaten a state's existence, such as the o Civil war happens when groups Falklands/Malvinas War (1982). within a state fight for control or secession, such as the Spanish o Total war involves a fight for Civil War (1936-1939) or the survival, as exemplified by the American Civil War (1861- Allies' demand for unconditional 1865). surrender from Nazi Germany in World War II. War and Society: War is a social relation that connects the groups waging it, War as a Continuation of Politics: impacting the societies involved and Clausewitz famously stated that "war is a potentially having global effects. The continuation of politics by other means," relationship between war and society is meaning that war is not a breakdown of bidirectional: war shapes society, and politics but rather a continuation of society shapes war. political interaction through the use of violence. Strategy and Tactics: Terrorism and Globalization o Strategy is a plan to utilize war for achieving political goals. Terrorism: Terrorism is the use of violence by sub-state groups to instill o Tactics are the techniques used fear by attacking civilians and/or by armed forces to win battles symbolic targets. It aims to draw within a war. attention to grievances, provoke responses, or wear down an opponent's Carl von Clausewitz's Philosophy of War morale, ultimately seeking political Clausewitz's Trinities: change. o Primary Trinity: This Globalization and Terrorism: encompasses passion, chance, Globalization has significantly and reason as the driving forces contributed to the evolution of terrorism  from a regional to a global phenomenon. o Increasingly interconnected It has provided terrorists with: conflicts, with the lines between internal and external conflicts o Enhanced Communication remaining blurred. and Coordination: Terrorists use technologies associated with o Continued evolution of globalization, like the internet terrorism as groups exploit and social media, for globalization for their advantage. communication, coordination, o Transformation of warfare and propaganda dissemination. driven by rapid technological o Increased Mobility: change and the evolving nature Globalization has facilitated the of threats. movement of people and goods, Examples Illustrating Globalization's Impact making it easier for terrorists to on War and Terrorism travel, acquire resources, and plan attacks across borders. The Global War on Terror (GWOT): This showcases the blurred boundaries o Access to Information and between international and civil wars, the Expertise: Terrorists use the global reach of terrorism, and the impact internet to access information of globalization on the tactics and ethics about weapons, tactics, and of warfare. The sources detail how events strategies, enhancing their originating in the U.S. led to conflicts in capabilities. Afghanistan and Iraq, drawing in various Connection to Globalization state and non-state actors and highlighting the interconnected nature of Globalization's Impact on Warfare: modern warfare. Globalization has transformed warfare by: The Rise of ISIS: This demonstrates the effective use of globalization, o Blurring boundaries between specifically social media, for international and civil wars, with recruitment, propaganda, and global non-state actors like terrorist mobilization. The sources emphasize groups increasingly playing ISIS's ability to inspire individuals significant roles. worldwide to join their cause. o Facilitating the globalization of The modern nation-state, a product of terrorism, enabling groups to Western European history, developed in operate transnationally and tandem with the evolution of warfare. As project violence globally. Europe transitioned from feudalism, o Influencing the development changes in military technology and the and spread of military rise of disciplined infantry armies led to technologies and impacting the the consolidation of power under central tactics and ethics of warfare. authorities. The fiscal-military cycle— the feedback loop between territorial Globalization and the Future of expansion, tax revenues, and military Warfare: Globalization suggests a future strength—played a crucial role in the of: emergence of the modern state. This state  claimed a monopoly on the legitimate The rise of non-state actors like Al-Qaeda use of force within its defined territory. and ISIS highlighted the global reach of terrorism and the challenges it posed to Nationalism became intricately linked traditional notions of warfare. The with war in the development of the response of Western powers involved nation-state. Nationalism fueled popular blurring legal and ethical boundaries, support for wars, and the shared such as the use of drone strikes and experience of war, particularly through extrajudicial detentions. This blurred mass conscription, intensified national boundary also extended to domestic sentiment. The nation-state, with its policies, as Western governments ability to mobilize the entire population expanded surveillance powers and faced and resources, became a highly effective increasing social and political tensions war-making machine. related to Islamophobia. However, the world wars of the 20th century exposed the limitations of the How Globalization has Impacted Warfare nation-state in the face of global conflict. Globalization of Terrorism: Non-State Actors o The unprecedented scale of these and Transnational Networks wars necessitated multinational alliances. Globalization has enabled non-state actors, particularly terrorist groups, to o The development of nuclear operate across borders and project their weapons introduced a new level violence globally. Al-Qaeda's attacks on of destructiveness, forcing a September 11, 2001, demonstrate this strategic shift towards nuclear transnational capability. deterrence. The Cold War, a globalized conflict between Terrorist groups exploit global ideologically opposed blocs, communication networks like the played out not only on the internet and social media to recruit, international stage but also spread propaganda, and coordinate through proxy wars in the Third attacks, extending their reach far beyond World, demonstrating the their physical presence. The sources interconnectedness of war and highlight ISIS's effective use of social globalization. media to mobilize individuals globally. The legacies of European colonialism Transformation of Warfare: Technology, profoundly shaped war and society in the Tactics, and Ethics Global South. In many postcolonial Globalization has influenced the states, armed forces inherited from development and spread of military colonial powers were used primarily for technologies. New technologies, from internal security, often directed against advanced weaponry to surveillance tools, their own populations in the context of have been adopted and adapted by both civil wars and foreign interventions. The state and non-state actors, impacting the focus on internal security contrasted with conduct of warfare. the emphasis on international war in the West. The GWOT has seen the increased use of drone strikes and targeted assassinations, The GWOT further blurred the lines reflecting a shift in military tactics, but between war, policing, and terrorism.  also raising ethical and legal questions Globalization and the Future of Warfare about sovereignty and extrajudicial The sources point to a future where the killings. It's worth noting that these are intersection of the national- complex issues with ongoing debates international and global dimensions of surrounding their legal and ethical war will continue to shape world implications. politics. The boundaries between internal Globalization has contributed to the and external conflict are likely to remain diffusion of information and expertise fluid, and non-state actors will continue related to warfare. This includes the to leverage globalization to their sharing of military training and doctrines advantage. between states, but also the The rapid pace of technological change, dissemination of knowledge about the proliferation of weapons, and the insurgency tactics and terrorist evolving nature of threats suggest that the techniques. character of warfare will continue to Impact on Societies and Domestic Politics transform in unpredictable ways. This presents significant challenges for states War and society are deeply and international organizations as they intertwined, and globalization has grapple with maintaining peace and heightened this connection. Wars fought security in a globalized world. in one part of the world can have profound social, political, and economic Arguments for Obsolescence: consequences in distant locations. Economic Interdependence: Some The GWOT has led to increased security scholars argue that war, particularly measures and surveillance in Western traditional interstate war, is becoming societies, often at the expense of civil obsolete, especially among democracies liberties. This raises concerns about the and developed economies where war is balance between security and freedom in viewed as economically unproductive1. a globalized world. This perspective suggests that globalization has fostered economic The GWOT has also fueled social and interdependence, making war costly and political tensions, particularly regarding undesirable for trading partners2. Islamophobia and immigration in Western countries. The sources suggest Shift to Non-Military Means: that the conflict has exacerbated existing Proponents of this view point to a shift social divisions and created new towards non-military means of influence challenges for social cohesion. in international relations, such as economic sanctions, cyber warfare, and Wars, particularly those with global soft power1. These alternatives are seen implications, can significantly impact as more effective and less costly ways to domestic politics. Public opinion about achieve political objectives in a wars, the economic costs of military globalized world. interventions, and the return of veterans Arguments Against Obsolescence: can all shape political discourse and Transformation, Not Obsolescence: electoral outcomes. The sources provide Counterarguments emphasize that war is examples of how the wars in Vietnam and transforming rather than disappearing13. Iraq influenced U.S. presidential politics. New forms of warfare, such as terrorism,  cyber warfare, and hybrid warfare, which to an escalation of tensions and combine conventional, irregular, and potentially armed conflict cyber tactics, are emerging. These new forms of warfare challenge existing The Global War on Terror and the military and legal frameworks, Enduring Nature of Conflict: The suggesting that war is adapting to the Global War on Terror (GWOT) is a stark realities of globalization rather than example of how conflict can evolve and fading away. adapt in a globalized world910. It involves a complex interplay of state and Regional Variations in Warfare: It is non-state actors, blurring traditional argued that while interstate war may have boundaries between international and declined in certain regions, particularly civil war, and highlighting the enduring in the Global North4, conflict and challenges of addressing terrorism and violence remain prevalent in the Global political violence in an interconnected South3. This perspective underscores the world. uneven impact of globalization and the persistence of historical and political factors that contribute to conflict in different parts of the world. Globalization's Role in New Forms of Conflict: Globalization, while potentially fostering economic interdependence, also facilitates the spread of violent ideologies and enhances the capabilities of non-state actors, such as terrorist groups2. Terrorists can leverage global communication networks and financial systems to their advantage, challenging traditional notions of warfare and security. This suggests that globalization may not necessarily lead to a decline in conflict but could rather contribute to the emergence of new forms of violence. Other Relevant Perspectives: Realism and the Security Dilemma: Realist perspectives, as described in source5, view war as an enduring feature of international relations, rooted in the anarchic nature of the international system and states' pursuit of security and power6. This suggests that even if traditional forms of war decline, competition and conflict between states will likely persist. The security dilemma, a key concept in realism7, further underscores the potential for conflict, as one state's efforts to increase its security can inadvertently threaten others, leading GLOBAL SECURITY Poststructuralism: A theoretical approach that critiques the role of language, discourse, and Human Security: A concept that expands power relations in shaping our understanding of security beyond the state to focus on the well- the world, including concepts like security. being of individuals, emphasizing threats like Poststructuralists often deconstruct dominant poverty, disease, environmental degradation, and narratives and challenge taken-for-granted human rights abuses. assumptions. National Security: The protection of a state's Bipolarity: A type of international system core interests, typically including its territory, characterized by two major powers or blocs, as citizens, and political independence, from seen during the Cold War between the US and the external threats. It often emphasizes military Soviet Union. capabilities and strategies. Multipolarity: A type of international system Security Dilemma: A situation in which actions characterized by multiple powerful states, often taken by a state to increase its own security can leading to more complex and fluid power inadvertently threaten other states, leading to a dynamics compared to bipolar systems. spiral of mistrust and arms races. Unipolarity: A type of international system Realism: A theoretical approach that emphasizes dominated by a single hegemonic power, as seen the role of power and self-interest in international in the immediate aftermath of the Cold War with politics. Realists believe that states operate in a the US as the sole superpower. competitive and often conflictual environment, prioritizing their own survival and security above Hegemony: Dominance or leadership by one all else. state or power within the international system, often characterized by the ability to set rules and Neorealism (Structural Realism): A theoretical norms that other states follow. approach that focuses on the anarchic structure of the international system as the primary Critical Security Studies: A diverse body of determinant of state behavior. Neorealists argue scholarship that challenges traditional approaches that states are primarily driven by the pursuit of to security, often focusing on broadening the power and security in a self-help world. concept of security to include issues like human rights, environmental degradation, and economic Liberal Institutionalism: A theoretical approach inequality. that emphasizes the role of international institutions in promoting cooperation and Feminist Security Studies: A field of study that mitigating conflict between states. Liberal examines the gendered nature of security and how institutionalists argue that institutions can foster traditional security frameworks often neglect the trust, transparency, and shared norms, helping to experiences and perspectives of women. overcome the challenges of anarchy in the international system. Postcolonial Security Studies: A field of study that examines the legacies of colonialism and Constructivism: A theoretical approach to how they continue to shape security dynamics in international relations that emphasizes the role of the international system. It often focuses on the ideas, norms, and identities in shaping state perspectives and experiences of formerly behavior. Constructivists argue that these factors colonized states and marginalized communities. are socially constructed and can change over time, influencing how states perceive and respond Soft Power: The ability to influence others to threats. through persuasion, attraction, and co-option, often relying on cultural, economic, or diplomatic Globalization and Security: A Complex tools rather than military force. Relationship Globalization has significantly impacted Security as a Contested Concept international security, leading to both opportunities and challenges.1112 The concept of security is multifaceted and open to interpretation. There is a On the one hand, globalization promotes general agreement that security involves interconnectedness and can foster safeguarding core values from threats, cooperation among states to address but there is much debate about whether shared challenges.1113 the primary focus should be on individual, national, international, or On the other hand, globalization can global security. exacerbate insecurity by facilitating the The meaning of security has expanded spread of weapons technologies, beyond military considerations to contributing to economic inequality, and include political, economic, societal, fostering transnational threats like public health, and environmental terrorism and cybercrime. aspects.345 National Security: The Traditional Approach Globalization as a Catalyst for Cooperation: National security is a dominant concept, The sources suggest that globalization, particularly during the Cold War, where by promoting interconnectedness, can the focus was primarily on a state's create opportunities for enhanced military capabilities to address threats.1 cooperation among states to address shared security concerns.1 The traditional approach to national security is heavily influenced by realism, Shared challenges such as ecological which emphasizes state-centric interdependence and the threat posed by perspectives and the pursuit of power for weapons of mass destruction survival in an anarchic international necessitate collaboration among states.1 system.6789 International institutions, facilitated by Expanding the Concept of Security globalization, provide platforms for Barry Buzan challenges the traditional, dialogue, norm-setting, and the narrow definition of security and argues development of cooperative security for a broader perspective that includes mechanisms.123 political, economic, societal, and environmental aspects, along with The sources point to the role of military considerations.37 institutions like the European Union, NATO, ASEAN, and the OSCE in The sources also highlight the growing promoting stability and security, importance of human security, which particularly in the post-Cold War era.3 emphasizes the individual as the referent object of security. This Globalization as a Source of Insecurity: approach recognizes threats such as poverty, disease, and environmental The sources also acknowledge that degradation as crucial security globalization can exacerbate insecurity concerns.4510 by creating new challenges and amplifying existing ones.4  The proliferation of weapons technologies, including those related to While globalization has contributed to weapons of mass destruction, is the erosion of some traditional facilitated by globalization, posing a geopolitical barriers, it has also led to the significant threat to international emergence of new power dynamics and security.4 rivalries.6 Economic inequality can be exacerbated by globalization, leading to social unrest, The sources point to the emergence of a instability, and conflict within and Chinese-Russian strategic partnership between states.4 as a challenge to the US-led world order, Globalization can foster transnational illustrating the evolving geopolitical threats such as terrorism and landscape shaped by globalization.6 cybercrime, which transcend national borders and pose challenges to traditional The war in Ukraine, triggered by security approaches.4 Russia's invasion, exemplifies the The sources mention the rise of the enduring relevance of geopolitics and the Islamic State, facilitated by potential for globalization to intensify globalization and social media, as an existing rivalries.67 example of a non-state actor posing a major global security threat.4 Globalization and the Future of World Order The sources engage with the debate Globalization's Impact on the Security Dilemma: surrounding the future of world order in the context of globalization.68 Globalization's influence on the security Some argue that the US-led liberal dilemma, a core concept in international world order is declining, challenged by relations, is complex and ambiguous.4 the rise of new powers and the fragmentation of global governance.68 The sources note that globalization can Amitav Acharya proposes the concept both mitigate and intensify the of a "multiplex world," a decentralized competitive aspects of the security and interdependent world order without a dilemma.5. hegemon.8 He suggests that this evolving order On the one hand, globalization, by presents both opportunities and fostering interdependence and creating challenges for international security, with opportunities for cooperation, can reduce the potential for shared leadership and mistrust and the perception of threats the risk of multipolar rivalry. among states.5 On the other hand, globalization can also heighten the security dilemma by facilitating arms races, technological diffusion, and the emergence of new security challenges that states feel compelled to address.5 Geopolitical Shifts and Globalization: The sources emphasize the interplay between globalization and geopolitical shifts in shaping the international security landscape.6 GLOBAL POL ECON. IPE provides insight into who benefits and who is disadvantaged Power, Globalization, and Inequality by globalization. For example, IPE IPE (International Political investigates the relationship between Economy) focuses on the globalization, poverty, and inequality. relationship between politics and Despite the expectation that economics to understand world neoliberal globalization would affairs. Globalization is a key area of reduce poverty, it has instead study for IPE, which seeks to coincided with a widening of understand the processes, trends, and inequality both between and within actors that the term encompasses. countries. This has led to a backlash A core premise of IPE is that against globalization in many parts of politics and economics are the world, including the rise of intertwined. IPE examines the nationalist and populist political different forms power takes within movements. the global political economy, who Schools of Thought in IPE and Their exercises that power, and the Approach to Globalization consequences. IPE is a diverse field with many Power in IPE is understood as theoretical approaches. authority concentrated in both Introductions to IPE often cite the public and private forms. theoretical framing of liberalism, o Public power is exercised by Marxism, and nationalism. However, state institutions and actors, as there are now many other theoretical well as state-led international frameworks, including newer organizations. perspectives like social constructivism, feminism, and neo- o Private power is exercised by Gramscian theory. non-state actors like firms, global markets, private These diverse theoretical regulatory bodies, NGOs, and perspectives in IPE each have social movements. distinct understandings of power, the relationship between public and Globalization is a historical process private power, and how material that is not new. Contemporary resources and power are globalization, which began in the distributed. 1960s and 1970s, is also known as 'neoliberal' globalization. The There are several perspectives in current phase of globalization builds IPE on the drivers of contemporary on earlier phases of global globalization. Some IPE scholars, integration, dating back to the particularly those from 'critical' IPE sixteenth century with the advent of a traditions, emphasize the role of ideas world economy centered on Europe. and ideology. Others focus on the  power of institutions and interest for states to "roll back" globalization groups like TNCs. Another through nationalist and protectionist interpretation centers on the role of policies. the technological revolution. Finally, Winners and Losers of Globalization: there are perspectives that emphasize the role of state power, especially US Globalization and Inequality: hegemony. While extreme poverty has decreased, global inequality has dramatically Theories in IPE share three core increased. The document attributes elements: material capabilities, this to the uneven distribution of institutions, and ideas. However, wealth generated by globalization and each theory interprets these elements the structural features of the global and their relationships differently. economy that hinder development in certain regions. Drivers of Globalization: Globalization and Labor Exploitation: IPE also examines the Ideology and Ideas: The dominance relationship between globalization of neoliberal thought has shaped the and labor exploitation. The intense "common sense" understanding of competition associated with global how the global political economy production often leads to pressure on should function. firms to cut labor costs, resulting in Powerful Interests and Institutions: precarious working conditions for The rise of transnational corporations many workers around the world. (TNCs) and their control over global Migrant workers are especially value chains (GVCs) has significantly vulnerable to exploitation due to their driven globalization, though the role lack of legal protections and limited of states and international institutions bargaining power.89 IPE investigates in enabling this power is the factors that contribute to labor acknowledged. exploitation and explores ways to promote more equitable labor Technological Revolution: practices in the global economy. Advancements in information and logistics technologies have Globalization and Migration: The compressed time and space, document analyzes the complex facilitating global economic activity relationship between migration and and empowering actors with control globalization, acknowledging both over these technologies. the opportunities and challenges it presents. While some highly skilled State Power: While historically professionals benefit from global centered on US hegemony, the rise of mobility, many migrants are trapped China and other states is shifting the in low-wage, exploitative labor power dynamics of globalization. The sectors, vulnerable due to their lack of document also explores the potential rights and protections. The document  also highlights the economic significance of migrant remittances and the cultural impact of migration on global cities. The Future of Globalization In the 2020s, the future of globalization is uncertain. This is due to a number of factors, including the Covid-19 pandemic and the rise of nationalist and populist politics. It is too early to tell if 'globalization' is coming to an end, and the meaning of 'globalization' is itself subject to debate. While neoliberal globalization may be strained, this does not preclude other models of globalization from emerging, such as one centered on China. The future of IPE is likely to be characterized by continued debate and discussion about the meaning and consequences of globalization. IPE can make an important contribution to understanding the global political economy and how it operates, particularly in terms of who benefits from and who is disadvantaged by globalization. RACE AND GENDER Complicit Masculinities: These masculinities benefit from the I. Gender existence of hegemonic masculinity A. Key Concepts: without necessarily embodying all of its traits. Sex vs. Gender: Biological sex (male/female) is distinguished from Ex. The man who enjoys watching and gender, which refers to socially cheering for sports but doesn't play constructed roles, behaviors, and them: This man benefits from the cultural identities associated with masculinity value placed on athleticism and and femininity. competition, even if he doesn't personally embody those traits. "Although our sexual inheritance is in some sense an element of who we are, it is the Subordinate Masculinities: These expression and contestation of our gender masculinities are devalued and often that establishes our recognized personhood." mocked because they are seen as the opposite of hegemonic masculinity. Gender as a Power Structure: Gender norms allocate resources, Ex. Men who work in traditionally opportunities, and limitations, female-dominated professions, such as creating disparities between men and nursing or teaching: These men may face women across various spheres of life. stigma and negative stereotypes for choosing a career path that deviates from Intersectionality: Gender interacts the norms of hegemonic masculinity. with other social categories like race, class, and nationality, producing diverse and complex experiences of Marginalized Masculinities: These power and marginalization. masculinities are excluded from the Multiple Masculinities: Various hegemonic ideal due to factors like forms of masculinity exist within a race or class gender system, some complicit with Ex. Men of color who face racial the hegemonic ideal, others discrimination: Systemic racism can subordinate or marginalized. prevent them from accessing opportunities and achieving the social Hegemonic Masculinity: This is the status that might otherwise allow idealized and most socially valued them to embody hegemonic version of masculinity. Though few masculinity. men fully embody it, it represents a powerful aspiration. Biological Essentialism as the belief that there are inherent and unchangeable Ex. The successful businessman: A man characteristics associated with biological sex. who embodies financial success, One example of essentialist thinking is the ambition, leadership, and assertiveness notion that men are inherently aggressive might be seen as representing hegemonic while women are naturally caring. masculinity. B. Gender's Impact on Global Politics: dimensions of reproductive labor and the complex interplay between Representation and Leadership: gender, migration, and economic Women remain underrepresented in globalization. leadership positions globally, facing barriers rooted in masculine norms II. Race and expectations. A. Key Concepts: "By any reasonable measure, male leaders Race as a Social Construct: Race is continue to dominate global politics." not biologically determined but a The Gendered Nation-State: The product of social and historical concept of the nation-state is processes that create hierarchies historically gendered, with masculine based on perceived group differences. ideals often associated with Racialization: The process by which citizenship, defense, and public social meaning is attached to racial authority. categories, influencing perceptions, Gender and Security: Military opportunities, and life chances. institutions and practices are heavily Cultural Calculus of Race: influenced by masculine ideals, Assessing human competency based perpetuating a gendered division on perceived cultural differences, between combatants and civilians. often positioning European societies The Global Economy: Gender as a benchmark for civilization. shapes labor markets, with women Biological Calculus of Race: often concentrated in low-wage, Attributing intellectual and moral precarious jobs, and capacities to physical characteristics, disproportionately burdened by leading to hierarchies based on skin unpaid reproductive labor. color and other features. C. Key Examples: White Supremacy: A system of The Kurdish Women's Protection structural advantages that privileges Units (YPJ): Demonstrates women's whiteness as a norm, perpetuating active participation in armed conflict, racial inequalities across various challenging assumptions about spheres of life. gender and violence. White privilege, the unearned Rosie the Riveter: Illustrates the advantages accrued to white people historical shifts in women's economic due to their position within racial roles during wartime, prompting hierarchies, remains a powerful force broader reflections on gender and in society labor. B. Race's Impact on World Politics: The Filipina Care Workers: Legacy of Colonialism: The Highlights the international historical processes of European  imperialism and colonialism continue fueled the rise of right-wing to shape global power dynamics and populism.17 Politicians often blame racial hierarchies. multicultural policies for a perceived loss of social cohesion, ignoring the The Global War on Terror systemic factors that contribute to (GWOT): "New racism" social and economic inequalities frameworks, emphasizing cultural incompatibility and the need for C. Key Examples: Western intervention, have influenced The Shooting of Jean Charles de policies and discourses surrounding Menezes: Exemplifies the deadly the GWOT. consequences of racial profiling and Humanitarianism and the social construction of threat based Development: Racialized on racial markers. assumptions about saviors, victims, The UNESCO Statement on Race: and savages shape humanitarian A landmark effort to debunk scientific interventions and development racism and emphasize the social initiatives, raising concerns about construction of race, although its neocolonial dynamics. impact remains contested. Development and the "White Ecofascism: Demonstrates the Savior" Narrative: The sources historical intertwining of critique the way in which environmental concerns with racist development initiatives often ideologies, highlighting the persistent reproduce racial hierarchies by dangers of white supremacy. casting white Westerners as "saviors" of people in the Global South.15 This David Cameron's Speech on "white savior" narrative perpetuates a Multiculturalism: Exemplifies the sense of white superiority and non- "new racism" framework, blaming white dependency, ignoring the cultural differences for societal agency and expertise of people within problems and justifying the Global South assimilationist policies. Globalization and Inequality: III. Intersections of Gender and Race: Racialized labor hierarchies and economic exploitation persist within a Both chapters emphasize that gender globalized economy, contributing to and race operate as interlocking uneven development and global systems of power, producing unique inequalities. experiences of marginalization and privilege. Multiculturalism and the Fear of Difference: The sources point to the Understanding the historical backlash against multiculturalism in construction of these categories is Europe, where anxieties about crucial for analyzing contemporary immigration and cultural change have global political phenomena.  Challenging gender and racial inequalities requires addressing their systemic and interconnected nature, moving beyond simplistic explanations and solutions. IV. Implications for Understanding World Politics: Recognizing the centrality of gender and race as ordering principles of world politics is crucial for a nuanced and critical understanding of global issues. These chapters challenge mainstream International Relations theories that often overlook or downplay the significance of these categories. Incorporating a gender and race perspective allows for a more comprehensive analysis of global power dynamics, security issues, economic inequalities, and humanitarian interventions. INTERNATIONAL LAW Multilateralism, or cooperation among three or more states based on International Law: A Summary agreed rules of conduct, became a States have strong incentives to dominant form of international mitigate the insecurities of legislation in the 19th century as international anarchy, meaning the liberalism gained ground. absence of a global governing body. While states previously considered They face common coordination and international law as a command from collaboration problems. God, they now view it as the result of To enable cooperation, states create agreements they make with one international institutions. These are another. This is based on the idea of complexes of norms, rules, and consent, which means states must practices that guide state behavior. agree to be bound by international There are three levels of international law. institutions: Although consent is the basis for o Constitutional institutions: international law, there are two These define the terms of exceptions: customary international statehood, with sovereignty law, which is considered binding on as the most recognized one. all states, and a philosophical issue Sovereignty means that power where consent cannot be the basis for within a state is centralized, the rule that makes consent binding in and no external power has the first place. authority over a state. The modern institution of o Fundamental institutions: international law is characterized These provide basic rules and by its multilateral form of legislation; practices for managing its consent-based form of legal international relations, such as obligation; its unique language and international law and practice of justification; and its multilateralism. discourse of institutional autonomy. o Issue-specific institutions or o The language of justification regimes: These are rules for a is both rhetorical and particular area of international analogical. This means that it relations. is about persuading others that a certain interpretation of the International law is one of the most law is correct and that the law important institutions for should be applied to a similar understanding cooperation and case. order among states. The modern international legal system is a product o The discourse of of historical changes in thought, institutional autonomy especially those related to liberalism. means that law and politics  are considered to be separate Laws of War spheres with their own logics. The laws of war are a central part of A Shift in Focus international law. They are divided into jus ad bellum, the law governing While international law traditionally when states can use force, and jus in focused on international order, bello, the law governing how war meaning peace and stability among should be conducted. states, recent trends show a shift towards global governance with an Jus ad bellum has undergone a emphasis on issues like justice and significant change. While war was human development. This can be seen previously acceptable if it served a in several areas: state's interests, after the two World Wars, the UN Charter limited the o Individuals are increasingly use of force to self-defense and UN- recognized as subjects of sanctioned peace enforcement international law. For actions. example, the development of international human rights Jus in bello has expanded to place law has given individuals more limits on the conduct of war, rights and obligations under including: international law. o Restrictions on the types of o Non-state actors are playing weapons that are allowed. a greater role in o Rules on the treatment of international law, for military combatants and non- example, by shaping state combatants, as seen in the behavior and drafting treaties. Geneva Conventions. o International law now Challenges to the laws of war since regulates state behavior 2001 include: within their territories, particularly in areas like trade, o The US pushing legal the environment, and human boundaries in the 'war on rights. terror', particularly its invasion of Iraq and its o International law now treatment of terrorist suspects. addresses questions of global justice. This is o Russia’s 2022 invasion of apparent in the development Ukraine and its conduct of international humanitarian during the war. law and interventions authorized by the UN Security o Transnational insurgents, like Council in response to human ISIS, challenging laws of war. rights violations. Theoretical Perspectives on International Law The sources list several theoretical Regulatory Institution: Neoliberals approaches to understanding the function and view international law as a significance of international law: "regulatory institution" that influences state behavior.5 They Realism: Realists are doubtful of believe international law helps states international law's effectiveness and view it manage their interactions and as serving primarily the interests of powerful coordinate their actions to achieve states and that it is not real law because it mutually beneficial outcomes. lacks enforcement mechanisms. Constructivism: Constructivists believe that Lack of Central Authority and international law is part of a system of Enforcement: Realists point to the lack of a global governing body to norms that shapes states' identities and enforce international law. They argue interests. They emphasize how law is that without a central authority to constitutive, not just constraining. create, judge, and implement laws Beyond Material Structures: with the backing of force, Constructivists highlight the international law is not truly "law."2 importance of normative and Primitive Law: Realist scholar Hans ideational structures, suggesting they Morgenthau compared international hold as much, if not greater, influence law to the "primitive law" found in than material factors like military societies without established legal power or economic resources.6 systems.2 Constitutive Role of Law: Constructivists contend that Limited Enforcement: The sources international law not only restricts explain that realists see international state actions but also shapes states' law's enforcement mechanisms as identities and interests. underdeveloped and sanctions as rare Emphasis on Discourse and occurrences in international Socialization: Constructivists relations.2 This leads them to believe underscore the significance of that states have little obligation to abide by it. communication, social interaction, and shared understandings in shaping state conduct. They argue that states Neoliberal institutionalism: Neoliberals learn and internalize norms through focus on how self-interested states use interaction with other states and by international law to cooperate. They see participating in international legal law as a regulatory institution. processes. Rational Egoists: Neoliberals perceive states as rational actors pursuing their own interests.5 They Critical legal studies: This see international law as a tool that perspective challenges the liberalism helps states achieve their goals by of international law, arguing that it is establishing predictable rules for incoherent and limits the potential for interaction. more radical change.  Practice turn: This approach focuses seen in the increasing importance of on how states' participation in multilateralism. international legal practices creates a sense of obligation to obey the law. They see legal obligation as a feeling constructed through interaction. Connection with Globalization While the sources do not explicitly discuss globalization, the shift in international law toward global governance reflects and is driven by globalization. Here's how: Increased interconnectedness: Globalization has increased interactions between states and non- state actors, making it necessary to develop international laws that address global challenges like climate change, human rights, and trade. This is reflected in the rise of global, not just international, regulation. Emergence of non-state actors: Globalization has empowered non- state actors, giving them a greater voice and influence in international law. This is seen in their role in shaping norms and drafting treaties. Focus on human rights: Globalization has raised awareness of human rights issues and facilitated the development of international human rights law. This is evident in the growing recognition of individuals as subjects of international law. Need for global cooperation: Globalization requires international cooperation to address transnational issues. International law serves as a framework for this cooperation, as INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS Liberalism: IOs enhance individual prosperity and freedom by facilitating trade, Key Terms and Definitions commerce, and international peace.8 International Organizations (IOs): Bodies Neofunctionalism: International comprised of three or more governments, cooperation, even among a small group of frequently supporting a permanent secretariat states on seemingly unimportant issues, can to perform ongoing tasks related to a lead to greater interdependence and common purpose1 integration.9 Regionalism: A range of special Neoliberal Institutionalism: States use IOs relationships among neighboring countries as a means to achieve international that represent more than normal diplomatic cooperation that benefits all states.10 relations but where the component parts retain legal personality under international Realism: IOs are tools for states to achieve law.2 their material and security interests.8 Regionalization: The often undirected Neorealism: IOs have no independent effect processes of social and economic interaction. on world politics.10 States will cooperate if These processes create interdependence and they believe they will gain more from it than may also constitute deepening perceptions of the states they are cooperating with, and common interests and identity, including self- states can control IOs to create rules for awareness as a region.3 others to follow.10 Formal Regional Integration: Processes by Constructivism: IOs shape global norms and which states go beyond the removal of influence state behavior.8 IOs classify the obstacles to interaction to create a regional world by creating categories of actors and space subject to some distinct common action, defining meanings, and promoting rules.4 norms and principles.11 Emanation IOs: Created by other IOs rather Marxism: IOs represent the interests of than by states, typically working on global elites in powerful, industrialized increasingly specialized issues.5 states, especially regarding the global capitalist system.11 Transnational NGO (TNGO): An NGO with a primary focus on cross-boundary Challenges and Opportunities of IOs problems, headquartered in one country with Organized hypocrisy: Gaps between IOs’ branches in at least two other countries.6 talk, decisions, and actions.12 Transnational Advocacy Networks Ineffective action: Resulting from IOs being (TANs): Networks that bring together those gridlocked by power politics or becoming working on a particular issue in an advocacy dysfunctional.12 role.7 Principal–Agent Model: Examines the relationship between member states (the Motivations for Creating IOs principal) and the IO (the agent) and the challenges inherent in delegation, such as Relationship with states and businesses: agency “slack” or “slippage.”13 TNGOs are theoretically independent of states, working for the common good rather The UN and State Sovereignty: While than profit.18 However, in practice, TNGOs initially focused on relations between states, may become dependent on states for funding the UN has been increasingly involved in or engage in partnerships with businesses. matters within states, which some argue These partnerships can compromise the undermines state sovereignty.14 independence of TNGOs and raise questions about their accountability.1920 Examples of Regional Organizations Influence: TNGOs play a vital role in international relations.16 They influence North America: The North American Free international law, norms, and global Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was replaced by governance.2122 Some key ways TNGOs the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement exert influence are: (USMCA).15 o Information politics: Providing South America: The Southern Common alternative information and raising Market (Mercosur) is an example of formal awareness.23 regional integration in South America, and o Symbolic politics: Using events to the Union of South American Nations stage protests and attract media (UNASUR) represents a broader effort at attention.23 regional cooperation.1617 o Leverage politics: Applying pressure Europe: The European Union (EU) is a through material or moral leverage.24 unique example of regional integration that o Accountability politics: Holding has gone beyond regional organization to states and corporations accountable produce a new form of regional for their actions. governance.318 Limits: States’ sovereignty, resource Asia: The Association of Southeast Asian constraints, and the complexity of certain Nations (ASEAN) has facilitated economic issues.27 and political cooperation in Southeast Asia.19 The UN: Development and Challenges History: Founded in 1945, the UN has TNGOs and Their Role in World Politics Establishment and Purpose: Established in Definition: Transnational NGOs (TNGOs) 1945 after WWII, the UN is a unique IO with are voluntary organizations that focus on universal membership and a mandate that cross-border problems and are distinct encompasses a wide range of issues, from states, businesses, and social including security, human rights, and movements, although their lines can be development. blurred in practice.1617 Organs: The key organs of the UN are: o The General Assembly o The Security Council o The Secretariat o The Economic and Social Council o The International Court of Justice o The Trusteeship Council Challenges: The UN has faced several challenges, such as: o Reconciling great power politics with universalism, especially in the Security Council where veto power resides with the permanent members. o Increased involvement in matters within states, which raises concerns about state sovereignty. o Limitations in preventing and resolving conflicts, as seen in various conflicts around the world. o Promoting sustainable development in the face of various challenges like climate change. Reform: Calls for reform often focus on the Security Council's composition and decision- making procedures to make it more representative and effective Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A set of 17 goals with 169 targets, adopted in 2015, that aim to address a range of global challenges.31 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES & o The Paris Agreement is a more CLIMATE CHANGE recent agreement under the UNFCCC, which aims to limit global The Anthropocene is the current geological warming to well below 2°C. It age, in which human activity is the includes nationally determined dominant influence on the climate and contributions (NDCs) from all environment.1 countries. Globalization has stimulated the relocation Climate change is driven by the enhanced of industry, population movement, and greenhouse effect, where greenhouse gases increasing levels of consumption, along with (GHGs) like carbon dioxide and methane trap pollution and climate change.2 heat in the atmosphere.1516 Sustainable Development is development o The Intergovernmental Panel on that meets the needs of the present without Climate Change (IPCC) is a body of compromising the ability of future scientists that provides assessments generations to meet their own needs.3 It seeks of climate change science. The IPCC to balance economic development, social development, and environmental protection.4 Key functions of international environmental cooperation include: International environmental cooperation establishes governance regimes to regulate o Transboundary trade and pollution transboundary environmental problems and control5 sustain the global commons.5 o Norm creation, such as the precautionary principle and the Multilateral environmental agreements principle of common but (MEAs) are international agreements that differentiated responsibilities. address environmental issues. o Aid and capacity building to help o The Montreal Protocol is a developing countries participate in successful MEA that phased out the environmental agreements. production and consumption of o Scientific understanding through ozone-depleting substances.1314 bodies like the IPCC. o The UN Framework Convention on o Governing the commons, such as Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an the high seas, Antarctica, and the international treaty that aims to global atmosphere. stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.19 o The Kyoto Protocol was an The precautionary principle states that agreement under the UNFCCC that when there is a likelihood of environmental committed developed countries to damage, banning an activity should not reduce their GHG emissions. It was require full and definitive scientific proof.7 undermined by the US Capacity building involves the transfer of withdrawal.1920 funds, technology, and expertise to help developing countries participate in cooperation in providing solutions to international environmental agreements.8 environmental problems. Marxist and Gramscian perspectives critique the role of capitalism in driving The Global commons are areas and environmental degradation and question the resources that do not fall under sovereign effectiveness of international cooperation jurisdiction, such as the high seas, the deep within the existing global economic system. ocean floor, Antarctica, outer space, and the global atmosphere.9 Constructivism views environmental concerns not solely as objective issues but The tragedy of the commons refers to the emphasizes how ideas, norms, and identities conflict between individual and collective shape the way states and actors understand interests in the use of shared resources, which and respond to them. can lead to overexploitation and environmental degradation. Environmental Security - a concept that highlights the The relationship between environmental risk of overexploitation and change and conflict is another area where degradation of shared theoretical perspectives come into play. resources when individual Some argue that environmental degradation interests prevail over contributes to internal conflict and even collective interests. interstate war, as it exacerbates resource The ozone layer protects the Earth from the scarcity, poverty, and migration. sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation. It was damaged by the release of ozone-depleting substances, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). o has concluded that climate change is unequivocal and human- induced.1718 International Relations (IR) theory offers different perspectives on environmental issues and global governance. Realism focuses on state power and interests, often neglecting environmental concerns.524 Liberal institutionalism emphasizes cooperation and institutions, highlighting the potential for joint gains in addressing environmental problems.25 o Oran Young, a prominent scholar, highlights the importance of REFUGEES AND FORCED deterring asylum seekers from MIGRATION reaching safe haven in wealthy countries using strategies like non- Key Terms admission, non-arrival, offshore Forced Migration: The involuntary processing, and criminalization. movement of persons away from their Mixed Migration: The movement of place of usual residence due to both voluntary and involuntary existing or potential threats. migrants who use the same routes to Refugee: A person forced to leave travel to the same destinations. their home country due to a well- founded fear of persecution based on their race or ethnicity, nationality, Key People religion, political opinion, or belonging to a particular social group. B. S. Chimni: An Indian legal scholar who argues that the legal Asylum Seeker: A person seeking category of “refugee” has been used international protection from dangers for political purposes throughout in their home country who must arrive history and has gone through four at or cross a border in order to apply distinct phases of evolution.12 for protection. Alexander Betts: A scholar who argues that the term “refugee” is Internally Displaced Person (IDP): inadequate to address the A person forced to migrate but who complexities of contemporary forced remains within the borders of their migration and has proposed the term home country. “survival migration” to encompass a broader range of people forced to Non-Refoulement Principle: The leave their homes due to existential principle in international law that threats.13 protects refugees from being returned Stephen Castles: A scholar who to places where they would be at risk studies migration, he argues that the of persecution. distinction between voluntary and forced migration is becoming Safe Third Country: An alternate increasingly blurred.1 host country for an asylum seeker if Guadalupe Correa-Cabrera: A the first country of arrival is unwilling Mexican scholar who examines the or unable to offer them protection. links between violence and forced disappearances, and economic Offshore Processing: Delegating activities.14 asylum processing to third countries Michel Foucault: A philosopher under agreements to separate whose concept of "asylum as the humanitarian responsibilities from right of the governed" highlights the administrative tasks. importance of asylum as a means of resisting oppression Deterrence Model: A model of refugee management focused on Causes of Forced Migration refugees, forcibly displaced communities, and stateless people, Conflict-Induced: Armed conflict, and assist in their voluntary situations of generalized violence, repatriation, local integration or and violations of human rights are resettlement to a third country. common reasons for internal displacement. Political-economic Shortcomings of the Refugee crises, global development, and Convention: The Refugee criminal violence commonly cause Convention has been criticized for not international displacement. adequately addressing internal displacement, environmental Environmental or Natural displacement, or new forms of forced Disaster-Induced: Climate change, migration caused by factors such as environmental degradation, and climate change and criminal violence. natural disasters such as hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, and drought can Shift from Refugee Studies to all displace people internally and Forced Migration Studies: Scholars internationally. have increasingly argued that the narrow legal category of “refugee” is Development-Induced: Economic insufficient to address the development projects such as complexities of contemporary forced population redistribution, urban migration and that a broader focus on development, mining, and dam forced migration is necessary. construction often lead to forced displacement. Globalization's Influence on Forced Migration Human Trafficking: The recruitment, transportation, transfer, Increased Mobility: Globalization harboring, or receipt of persons has facilitated human mobility by through coercion, abduction, fraud, or providing easy access to information, deception for the purpose of low-cost travel, and quick exploitation, including sexual communication. This has also created exploitation, forced labor, and problems for sending and receiving slavery. states in terms of security and economic challenges. International Refugee Regime Deterrence Strategies: Western 1951 Convention Relating to the democracies, particularly those in the Status of Refugees: The key legal EU, have implemented policies document defining who is a refugee, designed to deter asylum seekers their rights, and the legal obligations from reaching their territories, of states to protect them. including restrictive visa policies, UNHCR (United Nations High offshore processing, and carrier Commissioner for Refugees): The sanctions. UN agency mandated to protect  Outsourcing Asylum: Agreements patterns and influencing the responses like the EU-Turkey deal allow of states. wealthy countries to shift the There is a growing debate responsibility of processing asylum surrounding the ethics and efficacy of claims to third countries, often with deterrence-based approaches to questionable human rights records. refugee management and the need to Drivers of Forced Migration develop more humane and comprehensive solutions to forced Conflict: Armed conflict, violence, migration. and persecution drive internal and international displacement.2526 There are concerns about institutionalized racism within the Environmental Factors: Climate international refugee regime, change, environmental degradation, particularly in the way Western and natural disasters displace nations externalize their people.27 responsibilities and limit access to asylum for people from the Global Development Projects: Economic South. development initiatives often lead to forced displacement due to land acquisition and displacement of communities.28 Human Trafficking: Exploitation through forced labor, sexual exploitation, and slavery forces people into involuntary migration. Key Points Forced migration is a growing global issue with diverse and complex causes that increasingly fall outside the scope of existing international legal frameworks. The current international refugee regime is struggling to keep pace with the changing nature of forced migration, leaving many forcibly displaced people without adequate protection. Globalization is a key factor shaping contemporary forced migration PROLIFERATION OF WEAPONS OF Nuclear Opacity: A policy of not MASS DESTRUCTION: acknowledging possession of nuclear weapons (ex: Israel). Key Terms Key People Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD): This term typically refers to A. Q. Khan: A Pakistani scientist nuclear, chemical, biological, and who ran a global network that sold radiological weapons. nuclear technology and materials, raising concerns about proliferation in Nuclear Proliferation: The spread of a globalized world. nuclear weapons to new countries (horizontal proliferation) or increases Thomas Schelling: A prominent in the size of existing nuclear arsenals Cold War strategist who wrote about (vertical proliferation). nuclear deterrence. Nuclear Deterrence: The idea that Vipin Narang: A scholar who has possessing nuclear weapons prevents written extensively about nuclear adversaries from taking undesirable proliferation and nuclear postures, actions, particularly military actions. including his book Nuclear Strategy in the Modern Era. Nuclear Posture: How a country organizes its nuclear arsenal, Kenneth Waltz and Scott Sagan: including its capabilities, Two scholars who engaged in a transparency about those capabilities, famous debate about whether the and command and control spread of nuclear weapons is likely to arrangements. Different postures increase or decrease international affect a state's ability to deter conflict. stability (the Waltz-Sagan debate). Latent Nuclear Capacity: A country Nina Tannenwald: A scholar who possesses the infrastructure, material, has written about the "nuclear taboo," and know-how to quickly build a the idea that a strong norm has nuclear weapon, but has not yet done emerged against the use of nuclear so. weapons. Dual-use Technology: Technology Main Facts and Ideas that can be used for both peaceful and The technology underlying WMD has military purposes. Nuclear spread rapidly since 1945, but the technology, for example, can generate weapons themselves have spread energy or be used in a weapon. more slowly. There are only nine Counterproliferation: Efforts to states that currently possess nuclear prevent, slow, or reverse the spread of weapons. WMD, and to deter or defend against Nuclear weapons have only been used their use. once, against Japan in 1945.  There is debate about whe