Science, Technology, and Society Past Paper PDF, Southern Luzon State University, 2027

Southern Luzon State University COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING BATCH 2027 Science, Technology, and Society GEC08 - FINALS BSCPE I - GF | 1st SEMESTER | SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY o...

Southern Luzon State University COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING BATCH 2027 Science, Technology, and Society GEC08 - FINALS BSCPE I - GF | 1st SEMESTER | SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY o o Manco Cápac, the son of Inti the sun god his sister Mama Occlo, the daughter of the COURSE OUTLINE moon, o were sent by the sun to find a suitable I. INCA CIVILIZATION place to build an empire. 1. The Inca o They were told to carry a special golden rod 2. Historical Overview (tapac-yauri) with them at all times. 3. Astronomy Calendar  This rod would sink into the ground 4. Number System when they had found the ideal 5. Inca Technology location for their empire. a. Mita System  Eventually, they arrived at the b. Roadways fertile area around Cuzco, where c. Suspension Bridges they established themselves. d. Communication System  Thus, Cuzco was founded – the rod e. Machu Picchu plunged into the ground of 6. Medicine Pacaritambo cave, near to the 7. Agriculture modern location of Cuzco a. Terrace Farming b. Aqueducts c. Farming Tools d. Agricultural Crops & Food Preservation i. Incas Main Crops ii. Food Preservation (Freeze Drying) 8. Medicine 9. Fall of Inca Empire a. The Spread of Disease b. The Civil War c. The Conquest 10. Conclusion REFERENCE Manco Cápac also known as Manco Inca and Ayar Manco was Module and PPT the first governor and founder of the Inca civilization in Cusco, possibly in the early 13th century. INCA CIVILIZATION (1463 - 1532) Manco Capac THE INCA  He is thought to have ruled for between 20 and 40  The Inca Empire, also known as the Inka Empire or years. Incan Empire, was the largest empire in pre-  He reformed Inca society in many ways, including Columbian America and flourished between 1400- abolishing human sacrifice and forbidding tribesmen 1533 CE. and women from marrying their siblings.  The administrative, political, and military center of  Ironically this latter rule did not apply to nobility the empire was located in Cuzco in modern-day o which was rather convenient considering Peru. Manco Capac married his own sister,  It ran along the Pacific coast and Andean highlands Mama Occlo. from the northern border of what is today called o She bore him a son, Sinchi Roca, the Ecuador to the Maule River in Chile. second Inca Emperor.  Famed for their unique art and architecture, they  Manco Capac is remembered for being the guy who constructed finely-built and imposing buildings started it all, but the truth is that it would be hundreds wherever they conquered, and their spectacular of years before the Inca tribe developed into the adaptation of natural landscapes with terracing, great civilization we revere today. highways, and mountaintop settlements continues to impress modern visitors at such world famous sites ASTRONOMY as Machu Picchu.  One of the Incas' most successful scientific advances dealt with astronomy. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW  The Incas built the sun temples (astronomical  Although there are as many as four different Inca observatories) at Machu Picchu and Pissac and were founding myths, Manco Capac features in all of used by Inca’s astronomers, usually priests, in them, and for this reason historians generally agree studying the position of the sun, moon and the that he was a real person as well as being a planet Venus. mythical figure.  The most crucial events for the Inca generally involved  The most prevailing foundation myth holds that: the rising and setting of the sun, moon, and stars.  jtmh o Here are some of the animal constellations they identified:  Mach’acuay – the Serpent  Hanp’atu – the Toad  Yutu – the Tinamou  Urcuchillay – the Llama  Atoq – the Fox The Temple of the Sun at Machu Picchu likely served as a solar observatory and sacred site where high Inca priests performed rituals.  Astronomy was very important to the Inca civilization partly due to the importance of agriculture; Incas used astronomy for agricultural purposes. o For example, they built carefully and placed This painting shows some of the animal shapes that the Incas pillars on mountains and hills overlooking saw in the dark spots of the Milky Way. Photo by Koricancha Cuzco, so when the Sun rose or set Sun Temple/Cusco between these pillars, they knew they had to plant at a specific altitude. Micheq (Shephred)  Also, Incas grouped the stars into constellations.  Many say the shepherd is a woman, since in Andean  They sorted the constellations into two groups. communities’ women own the llama flocks while the o The first is most common; that is, the stars men take care of them. that are linked in a connect-the-dots  This shepherd extends her arms towards the manner to create pictures of animals, llamas, and her legs are close to the paws of the Gods, heroes, and more. fox. o One of the known star grouping was Pleiades, which was believed to be influential Atoq (Fox) over the well-being of animals, was seen by  The fox is found at the feet of the llama as if it were Incans as a huaca to which the Shamans chasing her. would make regular sacrifices.  Look closely: the celestial llama seems to be kicking o Huaca the fox.  meaning sacredness or holiness  The sun passes through this constellation in  sacred places where the ancestors December, the time baby foxes are born. paid worship and honored their gods. Llamacñawin with Unallamacha  They were also places where the (Eye of the llama with baby llama) ancient mummies could be placed  This was the most important constellation to the and also honored. Inka.  The bright stars Alpha and Beta Centauri serve as the llama's eyes, easily spotted when the constellation rises in November.  The constellation consists of: o two llamas  mother and baby, with the baby below the mother, nursing Yutu (Tinamou )  The tinamou is a partridge-like bird.  In the Inka sky, this kite-shaped constellation seems The worship of constellations by the Inca culture, and the to pursue the constellation of the toad. knowledge of their importance in the agricultural cycle, managed  (Tinamous eat small frogs and lizards.) to survive Spanish conquest and the colonial era  It appears in the sky in October and stays until July, its disappearance marking the end of the potato o The second type of constellations could only harvest. be observed when there were no stars; they were the dark spots or blotches on the Milky Hanp'atu (Toad) Way.  The toad was a very important animal for the Inka. o These dark blotches were considered as living  They believed that the more toads croaked, the more animals. likely it was that rain would soon begin. o The animals were believed to live in the Milky  The appearance of the toad in the sky meant that it Way, which they thought of as a river. was time to plant. o The Inca were one of the few civilizations who were able to locate their constellations without the presence of stars. 2 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Finals  jtmh Mach'acuay (Serpent) NUMBER SYSTEM  Mach’acuay was said to oversee all snakes on  It is often thought that mathematics can only develop Earth. after a civilization has developed some form of  This constellation emerges head-first in August and writing. begins to set in February, which matches the  However, the Incas had developed a method of activity of real snakes in the Andes. recording numerical information called quipu, which did not require writing language. CALENDAR  It is a collection of cord with knots in them; it  The Incas greatest development in mathematics consisted of colored spun and plied thread or string and science is probably their lunisolar calendar. from llama or alpaca hair, or made of cotton cords. o a calendar that was based on both the  The Inca people used them for: phases of the moon and the sun. o collecting data and keeping records o The 365-day solar calendar was based on the o monitoring tax obligations solar cycle. o properly collecting census records o This calendar was used for economic o calendrical information activities such as agriculture, mining, o formilitary organization warfare and construction.  This calendar was very important to the Inca people because they depend on this to fix the days of planting.  They check on which day the sun rose over the eastern tower and set on the western tower from a certain location of main plaza of Cusco and mark that day for the planting of corn and potatoes.  Also, they marked the day when the sun rose between the towers for general sowing. A Quipu was an ancient accounting tool that Incas used for  On the other hand, the 328-day lunar calendar, which bookkeeping. Quipu word comes from quechua language was based on the phases of the moon, was used to [written as khipu] and it means knot. Quecha is the spoken mark the days of all the festivals. language of the Incas.  This 12-month calendar has 28 days in each month and; the two calendars has a difference of 37 days.  The quipu consists of strings which were knotted  The 2 months of their calendar are as follows; to represent numbers.  A number was represented by knots in the string, using a positional base 10 representation. Capac Raymi December Great Feast of the Sun  In a canonical numerical quipu, each pendent (or Camay Quilla January Penitence and fasting of subsidiary) displays a number: a positive integer, the Incas; weeding of expressed in decimal notation, as follows: fields o units appear lowest on the cord. 1 is Jatunpucuy February Month of flowers in represented by a figure-eight knot, 2-9 by the which sacrifices with corresponding long knot. huge amounts of gold o tens appear one level higher. 10 is and silver were made; represented by a single overhand knot on that harvest of potato and level, 20 by a cluster of two overhand knots, other root crops up to 90: a row of nine closely spaced Pachapucuy March Month of rain, animals overhand knots. were sacrificed o hundreds appear one level above the tens, Arihuaquis April Maturation of maize and and are similarly represented: 100: a single potatoes overhand knot, up to 900: a row of nine Jatuncusqui May Harvest month overhand knots. Aucaycusqui June Feast in honor of the o A zero in any place corresponds to an Sun god (Inti Raymi), unknotted stretch of cord at that level. coincides with the winter solstice Chaguahuarquis July Month in which he carried out the distribution of land, and preparation for planting Yapaquis August Planting month Coyarraimi September Feast in honor of the Coya (queen), and to expel evil spirits and disease Humarraimi October Period for the invocation of the rain Ayamarca November Time to worship the dead 3 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Finals  jtmh The Incas recorded census data in knotted cords, called khipus. INCA TECHNOLOGY The primary cord had offshoots, which may have signified  Vast construction of highways and structures individual people or village. The number of twists in a knot became possible because of the Inca’s Mita (which determined units and its position on the pendant cord signifies means “turn”) system, a mandatory public service tens, hundreds, and so on. and considered to be one of the best invention of Inca government. Mita System  In this system, all people worked for the government for a certain time each year once they turned fifteen (15) until they became fifty (50).  The people worked in: o building highways o construction of Emperor and nobles’ house o monuments o bridges o temple The figure-eight knot on the end was used to denote the integer o Emperor fields “one.” Every other integer from 2 to 9 was represented with a  In mining, all without the technological assistance long knot, shown on the left of the figure. (Sometimes long knots of wheels. were used to represents tens and hundreds.) Note that the long  Mita laborers also served as soldiers, messengers knot has several turns in it…the number of turns indicates which or whatever needed to be done. integer is being represented. The units (ones) were placed closest to the bottom of the cord, then tens right above them,  In exchange the government would provide food, then the hundreds, and so on. clothing and medication.  This system allowed the empire to have all the  In order to make reading the above pictures easier, we necessary goods available for redistribution will adopt a convention that is consistent. according to necessity and local interests.  For the long knot with turns in it (representing the numbers 2 through 9), we will use the following notation:  The four horizontal bars represent four turns and the curved arc on the right links the four turns together. This would represent the number 4.  We will represent the single knot with a large dot (·) and we will represent the figure eight knot with a sideways eight (∞). See the examples below; 1. What number is represented on the cord shown at the right?  Solution: The Mita system was set up because it was believed that it (4 x1) + (5x10) + (4X100) “would end slavery, keep everyone fed, get silver mined, and 4 + 50 + 400 = 454 discourage abuse”. Answer: 454  It was later transformed into a coercive labor system when the Spanish conquered the Inca Empire.  The Spanish used this system to get free labor from the indigenous people as a form of tribute.  The indigenous people would provide agricultural labor or work in textile mills, but the most common form of labor was working the mines. 2. What numbers are represented on each of the four  This also contributed to the declining population of cords hanging from the main cord? indigenous people.  Solutions & Answers: (From left to right):  As a result, many natives moved away in order to Cord 1: 2 + 60 + 100 + 2,000 = 2,162 avoid the Mita system. Cord 2: 1 + 0 + 300 = 301  The Spanish transformed a system that was meant to Cord 3: = 0 help the Inca empire flourish into one of greed. Cord 4: 0 + 70 + 0 + 2,000 = 2,070  The Spanish didn’t care what happened to the natives or the dangerous environment they were working in, all they cared about was making a profit. Roadways  Since the Incas did not have horses and wagons or wheel-based transportation, they built an astounding 25,000 miles (40,000 km) of roads.  The surfaces of the Inca Road were intended for foot traffic, accompanied by llamas or alpacas as pack animals. 4 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Finals  jtmh  Some of the roadways were paved with stone This oasis located in the middle of the coastal desert, with cobbles, but many others were natural dirt emerald green waters and surrounded by palm trees, is one of pathways between 3.5–15 ft (1–4 meters) in width. the few remaining natural oases in all of Americas.  The roads were primarily built along straight lines, with only a rare deflection by no more than 20 Suspension Bridges degrees within a 3 mi (5 km) stretch.  Some of the most impressive acts of Inca  In the highlands, the roads were constructed to engineering were the many rope suspension avoid major curves. bridges they included as part of their vast network of  Road construction began in the mid-fifteenth roads. century when the Inca gained control over its  The suspension bridges allowed travelers to cross neighbors and started expanding their empire. both rivers and dangerous ravines.  These bridges were built using braids of reed or grass rope with wooden and fiber flooring. o The braided cables that held the bridges safely in place were as much as five feet thick. o They had to be strong to hold the weight. This extensive road network was vital to the survival and growth of the empire, since it was used to transport raw materials and food for the population, as well as the Inca’s authorities and armies.  The construction exploited and expanded on existing ancient roadways, and it ended abruptly 125 years The Inca suspension bridge is made of woven grass; the bridge later when the Spanish arrived in Peru. spans 118 feet and hangs 60 feet above the canyon’s rushing  To traverse the mountainous regions, river. o the Inca built long stairways and switchbacks  Hundreds of these bridges were built and, if one broke, local workers rushed to fix it so that travel could continue unimpeded.  Every other year, bridges were replaced. o The bridge was rebuilt annually to prevent dangerous sagging by the men and women of four surrounding towns for three days. o The women braid the small, thin ropes, and the men re-braid those smaller ropes into large support cables. o Each household is responsible for 90 feet of rope. o Handwoven bridges have been part of the trail Inca built switchbacks that help prevent erosion and make it and roadway system for over 500 years, easier to climb steep hills. and were held in very high regard by the Inca. o The punishment for tampering with such a  For lowland roads through marshes and wetlands bridge was death. o they built causeways; crossing rivers and streams required bridges and culverts, and desert stretches included the making of oases (water hole) and wells by low walls or cairns. Quechua women sit at the top of the canyon and twist ichu grass into rope. During the ceremony, women are not permitted to go down the canyon near the bridge because it is considered bad luck. 5 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Finals  jtmh During the first day of the reconstruction, men gather around the old bridge and weave the smaller ropes into bigger ones. The The chasquis were the messengers of the Inca empire. main support of the bridge comes from six large three-ply ropes Agile, highly trained and physically fit, they were in charge about one-foot-thick, each containing about 120 of the original of carrying the quipus, messages and gifts, up to 240 km thinner ropes. per day through the chasquis relay system.  The Incas used the road system for a variety of  Chasquis ran about 2.4 km between tampu or tambo reasons, from transportation for people who were  Tampu traveling through the Empire to military and o Place to rest religious purposes.  Tambo  The road system allowed for a fast movement of o Station of destination persons from one part of the Empire to the other:  As delivered his message, package or food to another o both armies and workers used the roads to chasqui upon reaching the new tampu. move and the tambo to rest and be fed.  When a chasqui was spotted, another one would  It also allowed for the fast movement of information run to meet him. and valuable small goods which traveled through the o He would run beside the incoming chasquis. messenger trying to listen and memorize  Ordinary people were not permitted to use the the message, he would also relay the quipu roads for private purposes unless they had official if he was carrying one. permission.  The tired chasqui would stay and rest in the Tampa  They also sometimes had to pay tolls for the while the other one will run to the next relay station. privilege, especially at bridges. Communication System  Since the Incas did not have horses and wagons or wheel-based transportation, they traveled their land by walking or riding llamas.  The construction of roadways enabled communication system that used runners or chasquis o Chasquis  a Quechua word that means mail person of relay  to deliver messages between These constructions were specially equipped for travelers along villages. the Inka Road. Different-sized tampus were designed to  Sometimes multiple runners would relay messages accommodate royalty, llama caravans, the military, or other over long distances. users of the road. The smallest tambos served as relay stations  The Incas placed markers to indicate the distance for the chasquis. traveled, and rest stations found along routes.  Through this relay system, the message could travel  The chasquis (aged between 18 to 25) were children 240 km in one day. of curacas, the people of confidence, who were  They were allowed to chew coca leaves, sacred leaf, selected and prepared physically. to bear cold, thirst, and fatigue.  They have special qualities beyond:  If it was discovered that the delivered message was o the ability to run very fast inaccurate or wrong, the chasqui will be punished o their lungs had to be particularly good and he could be killed. o their legs had to be strong o their toes were slightly open to fasten on irregular surfaces o they had to know all the roads and their shortcuts o good swimmers  A chasqui always carry a patutu, a conch shell trumphet, to announce his arrival and to alert his reliever.  On his arms he carried a truncheon and a huaraca, a woven sling bag, and a quipu; he also carry a qipi For the Incas, the coca leaf was sacred. However, it could only on his back, which contains objects and packages. be consumed by the Inca nobility. The only exceptions were the  He wore a plume of white feather on his head as a chasquis, children who would be sacrificed in the capacocha visual identifier. ritual or in exceptional cases of famine in the population. 6 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Finals  jtmh Machu Picchu  During the June solstice (summer solstice) the rising sun shines directly into one of the temple’s windows, and this indicates an alignment between the window, rock and solstice sun.  A rock inside the temple could have served as an altar where the priest made the rituals and sacrifices, and offering the sacred drink of the Incas, Chicha, to gods and ancestors, including mummies of late kings. o Chicha is produced from corn, sacred crop of the Incas. Machu Picchu is an Incan citadel set high in the Andes Mountains in Peru. Machu Picchu is believed to have been a royal estate or sacred religious site for Inca leaders, whose civilization was virtually wiped out by Spanish invaders in the 16th century.  The construction of Machu Picchu (which means Old Peak) began when the Inca´s territory started to grow. o it is thought that around 1,000 people lived here.  Machu Picchu was an imperial estate founded by The traditional way to make chicha is to ground purple maize and belonging to Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, the and chew on it, moistening it with saliva, which has natural ninth ruler of the Inca, in the mid-1400s. enzymes that convert the starch to sugar so it can ferment  Most of the architecture in the Machu Picchu was designed for religious purposes and the walls have  In the Southern Hemisphere, winter solstice is the been put in place to ensure that only selected few 21st of June and is the shortest day of the year, could enter this sacred site. marking the start of winter.  One of the structures that would have enhanced the  In Inca times, winter solstice was known as Inti spiritual significance of the Machu Picchu was the Raymi or the Festival of the Sun. “Temple of the Sun” or Torreon.  In Machu Picchu at dawn, when the very first light rises over the distant mountains, it shines through one of the two windows of the Temple of the Sun and illuminates the ceremonial stone within.  The second window was for the sun’s rays on summer solstice. The Incas used the Temple of the Sun to pay tribute to the sun itself and various gods, including Viracocha, the creator god. A natural outcrop of rock inside the Torreón may have served as a ritual alter, while windows within the walls of the tower are aligned to the summer and winter solstices. Beneath the Torreón lies a natural cave with carved walls, which  Below the temple lies a naturally-formed cave, which Hiram Bingham described as a mausoleum. referred to as royal mausoleum, although there’s a little evidence that it was used as such.  It is located near where the Inca Emperor is  Nevertheless, recent studies said that this was believed to have resided at Machu Picchu. made to celebrate the ceremony of the Mother  It is Earth (Pachamama). o semi-circular in shape  The stones that were used to build more than 200 o made of granite stones buildings at Machu Picchu were cut and molded to fit o with a large door together perfectly, without the use of mortar o two windows (cement), and were placed together like a jigsaw  one facing north puzzle.  another facing east 7 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Finals  jtmh Inca stone wall corner in Machu Picchu. Rounded corners with L shaped blocks used to tie the outside corners are one of the subtle design technique used by Incans.  These walls do not rise straight from bottom to top but are offset slightly from row to row.  Roofs were also slanted, creating an additional clever reminder of the surrounding mountains. The technique called ashlar was used in the construction of buildings in Machu Picchu,.in which blocks of stone are cut to fit together tightly without mortar or cement.  This construction technique is called ashlar, which provides additional building strength for the city which was built in an earthquake-prone area.  This type of construction is very resistant to earthquake because; o The lack of mortar allows rocks to move independently during an earthquake, and The stone features in Machu Picchu are so The roofs of buildings in Machu Picchu were triangular and have perfect that it is difficult to even insert a blade been very steep (about 60 degrees) as it rains a lot. of grass between them.  Inca buildings were amazing structures. o The rocks were irregularly shaped and  The architecture was formal yet simple. would fall back into their proper place as the earthquake subsided.  The Inca loved gold and silver, but they also liked things to be simple.  The terraces around Machu Picchu were also built with ashlar stones and provide an efficient  The royals and nobles decorated the outside doors drainage system that reduces the risks of landslide. leading into their homes with gold, silver, and designs.  Peru is a highly seismic land, and mortar-free construction was more earthquake-resistant than  Inside, the royals and nobles had simple paintings on the walls and solid gold decorations throughout using mortar. their homes.  The stones of the dry-stone walls built by the Incas can move slightly and resettle without the walls  The poor people were not allowed to decorate their collapsing. homes. o Their homes could contain only functional  Inca walls show numerous design details that also help things or things necessary to do their jobs. protect them from collapsing in an earthquake.  Doors and windows are trapezoidal and tilt inward Discovery of Machu Picchu from bottom to top;  When the explorer Hiram Bingham III encountered Machu Picchu in 1911, he was looking for a different city, known as Vilcabamba. o This was a hidden capital to which the Inca had escaped after the Spanish conquistadors arrived in 1532.  Over time it became famous as the legendary Lost City of the Inca.  Bingham spent most of his life arguing that Machu Picchu and Vilcabamba were one and the same, a theory that wasn’t proved wrong until after his death in 1956. Interior of an Inca building, featuring trapezoidal windows. o The real Vilcabamba is now believed to have been built in the jungle about 50  Corners usually are rounded; inside corners often miles west of Machu Picchu. incline slightly into the rooms;  Recent research has cast doubt on whether Machu  "L"-shaped blocks often were used to tie outside Picchu had ever been forgotten at all. corners of the structure together.  When Bingham arrived, three families of farmers were living at the site. 8 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Finals  jtmh Bingham believed he had found Vilcabamba, the so-called Lost  Over the years, remains have shown researchers City of the Inca where the last of the independent Inca rulers that the oldest skulls had no healing bone, so the waged a years-long battle against Spanish conquistadors. operation was probably fatal. Bingham argued for and justified his conclusions for almost 50  Yet over the years the surgery was standardized and years after his discovery, and his explanations were widely perfected, and in the 1400’s, the survival rate was accepted. around 90% and there were low infection levels.  The surgeons were quite skilled, as they knew: MEDICINE o detailed information about cranial anatomy  The Inca civilization had an extent supply of o not to cut parts of the skull where brain injury knowledge about how to cure many illnesses such o bleeding or infections were more likely as cough and bronchitis and how to treat  They had different methods of operating on the sicknesses in the immune system by increasing skull and they varied over time. the amount of white blood cells or leukocytes. o Yet the chosen method was to scrape the  Also, they were able to alleviate: skull since that didn’t cause wider injury. o Dysentery  Many people underwent this ordeal, some even o Ulcers undergoing it more than once. o eye problems  Archaeological evidence has shown that some skulls o lice were operated on more than once o toothaches o one individual had the operation 7 times.  To cure these diseases, the Incas used medicinal  The patients were mostly adult men to treat injuries plants such as: during combat, but also to cure epilepsy or chronic o coca leaves bone infection. o wild tobacco  Natural antiseptics such balsam and saponins were o chichi used to reduce infection after the operation, o maize beer for anesthetics or painkillers  While maize beer was used for pain relief.  In addition, they used plants that had soap-like characteristics such as: o Balsam o saponins as natural antiseptics or sanitizer  A major accomplishment of the Inca was performing surgery. o The Inca surgeons managed to often and successfully take away small pieces of the patient’s hand to treat a head injury. o They could remove crushed or diseased limbs, and perform brain surgery. Animal bones and stone were used rather than the proper o The operation on the brain is called surgical scalpels we have in our day and age including our trepanation, which involves drilling, cutting anaesthetic equipment that was invented many years forward of or scraping a hole in the skull, and has the empire’s existence. been carried out since AD 1000. Different Types of Doctors  Wattuk  Hanpeq  Paqo  Sancoyoc Wattuk  To finding the origin of the disease  To diagnose the patient  To examine the patient’s life Hanpeq This adult male lived in Peru between 1000 C.E. and 1400 C.E.  To cure the patient using herbs and minerals and died during or shortly after trepanation. (D. Kushner/World  They were like Shaman, who also employed his Neurosurgery) religious and mystical powers to restore the patient. Paqo  The Paqo was in charge of the treatment of the soul o the Inca believed the soul was in the heart  To make sure the spirit was healthy Sancoyoc  Surgeon priest who would take care of broken limbs  To open abscesses This 8- to 10-year old child lived in Peru between 1000 C.E. and  To pull out teeth. 1400 C.E., died during or shortly after trepanation surgery. (D. Kushner/World Neurosurgery) 9 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Finals  jtmh  Becoming a doctor was not an easy journey. o First, it was passed from father to son. o Then the son was sent to the Inca School of Medicine of Cuzco where he would learn about:  herbs and mineral properties  how to recognize known sicknesses  how to treat them o It would take an Inca many years of practice before he was considered a doctor. o The most skillful surgeons traveled with the army or treated nobles from large cities. This is a picture of the Inca terraces. You could see that the o These doctors were always looking for terraces are next to their homes and you could see that the new remedies and improving old cures, terraces look like stairs, they look like stairs because they made which resulted in great medical them out of the mountains. This is a part of their success development. because they had a good system for building their terraces and planting their food so they could have enough feed their people. Aqueducts  These are the channeled water systems that were The three types of doctors in the Inca primarily used to irrigate their terraces and for empire were essential to the remedies bringing fresh drinking water (even for baths). performed on the patients.  These aqueducts collected the water coming from the mountains and helped in distributing water across the Inca cities and in areas where water is needed.  The combination of terraces and waterways enabled the Incas improved their agricultural production.  Interestingly, many of these waterways are carved AGRICULTURE into whole rocks instead of being put together from  The cleverness and resourcefulness of Incas multiple components (individual bricks). enable them to adapt and work in harmony with the o This was done to minimize possible leakage. land in the snow-capped high peaks of Andes.  The aqueducts have been providing water during  They invented extensive agricultural and irrigation drought for centuries and they are extensively used systems, which inspire the modern farming technique today. throughout the world.  Also, the Incas developed a vital understanding about conservation of soil and water by means of terrace farming, which gave the crops the best chance of survival. Terrace Farming  The procedures in terrace construction are as follows; o The stone retaining walls were first built.  These absorbed heat from the sun during the day and radiated it back out at night, often keeping crops from freezing in the chilling nighttime The aqueducts flowed into Inca cities and settlements. Some temperatures. connected to baths, some to fountains, and others to areas for o Each step of the terrace was then filled growing crops for food. Such structures, some of which survive with a base layer of medium-sized gravel, today, show the advanced hydraulic and civil engineering then topped with a mixture of fine sand and capabilities of the Inca. more gravel. o Finally, a layer of topsoil was placed on Farming Tools top of the above-mentioned mixture of  The Inca was mainly an agricultural society, but unlike gravel and sand. modern day farming the Inca farmers did not have  The seeds of their primary crops domesticated animals or machinery suitable for (corn and potatoes) were sown on agricultural work. the topsoil of each terrace. o Instead they relied on manual tools, which  The terraces were hard to make but they had a good were well adapted to the steep mountain system to farm and make the terraces. terrains of the Andes and to the limited-  They also made the terraces so they could have area platforms on which they farmed. space for building their homes. o The principal farming tools that they used included; 10 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Finals  jtmh Chaki taklla  A foot plough made up of a wooden  Some of the larger state-owned herds could have pole with a sharp point, made from tens of thousands of animals, and all herds were stone. meticulously accounted for in a state census  The farmer used his foot to sink a chaki conducted each November. taklla into the soil to produce a groove  Food security was one of the most important aiding plowing, sowing and building. policies of the Inca government. Rawk'ana  A hoe used to harvest tubers, to  All Inca people could expect to be well-fed. remove weeds and to plant small  Most common people worked as farmers and they seeds. were excellent at their job. Waqtana  A heavy club like tool used to break up the soil.  With a quickly expanding empire and growing population, the Inca grew more than the population needed.  They stored their surpluses in facilities throughout the empire.  The main benefits of maintaining storehouses stockpiled with food were: Traditional tools used by Inca farmers: o To provide food for government personnel rawkana (left), Chaki taklla (center) stationed nearby (administrators, soldiers, and waqtana (right). The blades were made of ground stone or wood priests, and temporary or permanent laborers) o As a food supply when economic or political changes affected local food production o Protection against naturally-caused famines Maize has been  These storehouses were kept stocked year round cultivated in the and were ready to serve the movement of the Inca Andes since at least forces at any moment. 1200 BC. Ancient  The state storage system maintained stored food Inca farmers sufficient to last 3 to 7 years. achieved a degree of sophistication in  At least 2,000 warehouses, called quolqa or qullqa the breeding of new (in Quechua, quollqa), were scattered throughout the varieties of maize. Inca Empire. Sara, a special variety, was grown at lower altitudes and was used as offerings in religious ceremonies. Another variety of maize was used to brew a drink called chicha, which is still a popular drink today.  The skilled farmers of Andes had the means in farming their land effectively for thousands of years because of the above-mentioned basic farming tools. AGRICULTURAL CROPS & FOOD PRESERVATION Incas Main Crops Inca food storehouse in the Sacred Valley of the Inca people.  Crops cultivated across the Inca Empire included: o Maize o Squash  The food was also used to feed nearby o Coca o Cucumber communities in times of need. o Beans  o Grains o Quinoa As a result of their skill at farming - and because all o Potatoes o Gourd common people worked hard and needed lots of o Sweet Potatoes o Cotton calories to continue their work - common people o Ulluco o Talwi typically ate two or three meals a day. o Oca o Carob o Their breakfast was often a food called o Mashwa chicha, which was a kind of thick beer made o Cherimoya o Pepper from fermented corn. o Lúcuma o Tomatoes o Their main meal was eaten at night. o Peanuts o Guayabo  They ate corn with chili peppers o Cashews o Avocado seasoned with herbs, potatoes, thick  Livestock was primarily llama and alpaca herds. vegetable soups made with quinoa,  These animals were vital to many aspects of Andean and hot bread made from cornmeal life as they provided wool, meat, leather, moveable and water. wealth, transportation - especially for the army, and they were often sacrificed in religious ceremonies. 11 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Finals  jtmh Chuño has an extremely long shelf life (it lasts for several years), Different varieties of Peruvian potatoes. Potatoes were the most and it has been part of the Andean diet for centuries. important ingredient in Inca diet and their main source of nourishment. The potato is one of Peru’s native crops and was domesticated more than 8000 years ago by pre-Inca cultures. Around 2,500 varieties are native to the Peruvian Andes. Food Preservation (Freeze Drying)  The Inca farmers grew more food than was needed.  Some of their food was dried and stored in royal warehouses for times of war or famine.  The Inca invented a brand new system of safe food storage.  After harvesting their food, the Inca freeze dried it.  The Incas began to freeze-dry vegetables and meat Modern Peruvian cuisine has several dishes with ancient roots as many as 1500 years ago. in Incan culture, and carapulcra is one of them. Carapulcra is a  The high mountains provided the perfect way to thick stew made with meat and the freeze-dried potatoes called freeze dry: chuño. o The food was spread on rocky ground where it was exposed to the elements. THE FALL OF THE INCA EMPIRE  The Inca stomp the food, The Spread of Disease removing as much water as they  The collapse of the Inca Empire started when the could. Spaniards arrived in Central America and o During the cold nights, the meat or transmitted their diseases to locals who spread vegetables would freeze. them to other parts of the continent including o In the daytime, the heat of the sun in the South America. dry and rarefied atmosphere would  It is believed that in ten years between 50% and 90% quickly melt the ice crystals and evaporate of the population was attacked by diseases like: the moisture. o Smallpox  In the highest altitudes of the Andes, freezing o Influenza temperatures are pretty much guaranteed at night. o Typhus  The Incas used this to their advantage by bringing o Diphtheria potatoes to these chilly environments and letting o Chicken pox them freeze beneath a cloth. o Measles  The residents of the wintry villages would then  The diseases spread alarmingly fast as they did not walk on the cloths in the morning to squeeze out have the immunity to fight off newly brought viruses. the moisture from the potatoes.  Influenza and smallpox were the main causes of o The repeated process would result in death among the Inca population and it affected not freeze-dried potatoes known as chuño. only the working class but also the nobility.  To consume it, you need to rehydrate the dried  As a result, disease weakened the working class potatoes by soaking them in water. which resulted in lower agricultural output as well o Then they are mainly used to make Andean as in the effectiveness of the communication soups and stews, or you can just cook them network which were the backbone in the success and eat them with corn and cheese. of the empire. o Without its reliable communication network which used man power or chasquis, officials in Cusco, the capital, did not know what was happening as they were invaded in the north.  When the nobility got affected by disease it unraveled previously unseen struggle for power and a fight for the succession to the crown of Sapa Inca.  This situation triggered a civil war between Closeup of indigenous woman stepping on potatoes, preparing supporters of the two brothers Atahualpa and them for freeze dry. The potatoes were laid for overnight Huascar which enabled the Spaniards quick access freezing and mashed during daytime. to the control and the wealth of the empire. 12 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Finals  jtmh The Civil War o The Spanish showed their superiority by  The civil war was triggered by the death in 1527 of killing and capturing his soldiers in less Sapa Inca Huayna Capac and his eldest son Ninan than thirty minutes. Cuyochi, who was the heir to the throne leaving no  Atahualpa knew then that their visit was not peaceful clear successor, both died of smallpox. and that the Spaniards were after gold and silver.  According to Inca family tradition only the son of the  He offered two full rooms of silver and one of gold Sapa Inca and the Coya, his legitimate wive, can as payment for his freedom. become the next Inca emperor after the death of his  Atahualpa was never let go and was charged of father. treason and crimes against the Spanish state.  Following this tradition Huascar was the next in line after the death of his older brother and was crowned Sapa Inca by the nobility in Cusco.  Meanwhile in the northern administrative capital of Quito, his half-brother, Atahualpa was considered a more capable warrior and proven administrator and was crowned as Sapa Inca by his supporters.  However, as Atahualpa was the son of the Inca emperor and one of his concubines he did not have legitimacy to the throne.  Huascar, who considered himself as the heir to the empire started a long civil war that lasted five years until 1532. o Atahualpa proved to be a better warrior and won the war. Atahualpa being strangled by soldiers of Pizarro. Engraving,  Torn by a long civil war and debilitated by smallpox 1595 from the Bettmann Collection and influenza the Spanish conquistadors did not  He was executed on August 29, 1533. find a strong resistance and took advantage of this  After the capture of Cajamarca and with no Inca situation. resistance the conquerors made their way south to  The decline of the Inca Empire started before the capture the capital of the empire, Cusco. Spanish arrived in Inca territory but their arrival  Once there they named Manco Inca, brother of accelerated its decline and eventually its fall Atahualpa, as the new Sapa Inca. destroying its civilization. o He had the support of the nobility in Cusco and would serve as a puppet to capture the The Conquest Inca capital city. o Manco Inca collaborated with the Spaniards but in 1536 he tried to recapture Cusco but failed, retreating to the mountains of Vilcabamba where he created a neo- Inca government that lasted for 36 years. CONCLUSION  The Inca Empire was a large, powerful, and sophisticated ancient civilization.  Despite the challenges it faced, such as: o the difficult geography o large population o communication issues  the civilization was still able to thrive and expand. Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish conquistador, best known for his  The Inca Empire was eventually conquered by the expeditions that led to the Spanish conquest of Peru Spanish, but its legacy - in ruins, in artifacts, and in  The conquest of Peru started in 1532 when a group descendants - still lives today. led by Francisco Pizarro arrived in the city of Cajamarca, armed with 110 men and a cavalry of PADAYON! FUTURE ENGINEERS 67.  The following day he met Atahualpa.  It is believed that Atahualpa regarded the meeting as a peaceful gathering where the newcomers would present their respect to the emperor. o His view was short lived as he would shortly experience when a priest named Valverde handed him a Bible and tried to make him swear loyalty to the Pope and the King of Spain. o Atahualpa threw the Bible on the floor and refused to swear loyalty, at that moment they took him prisoner. 13 I GEC08 - 1st SEMESTER | Finals