STS Pointers (Unit Quiz for Midterms) PDF

# Historical Antecedents in the World ## Developments in Mesoamerica ### Maya Civilization - Chichen Itza - Hydraulic systems - Mica - Two complicated calendar systems ### Inca Civilization - First suspension bridge - Irrigation system - Quipu - Inca textiles ### Aztec Civilization - Antispamodi...

# Historical Antecedents in the World ## Developments in Mesoamerica ### Maya Civilization - Chichen Itza - Hydraulic systems - Mica - Two complicated calendar systems ### Inca Civilization - First suspension bridge - Irrigation system - Quipu - Inca textiles ### Aztec Civilization - Antispamodic medication - Chinampa - Aztec calendar - Canoe ## STS Pointers ## Development of Science in Asia ### India - Metallurgical works (Iron steel) - Medicine, astronomy, mathematics ### China - Traditional medicines - Acupuncture - Iron plough, wheelbarrow, propeller - Compass, papermaking, gunpowder and printing tools - Seismology - Records on supernovas, lunar, and solar eclipses ### Middle East - Scientific method in Muslim world - Algorithm - Experimental medicine ## Development of Science in Africa - geometry for agriculture - alchemy - human anatomy and pharmacology - Egyptian pyramids - Lebombo bone - algebra and geometry - metallurgy ## Lesson 1: An antecedent is defined as a precursor to the unfolding or existence of something. Thus, historical antecedents in science and technology are factors that paved the way for the presence of advanced and sophisticated scientific and technological innovations today. The Scientific Revolution was characterized by an emphasis on abstract reasoning, quantitative thought, an understanding of how nature works, the view of nature as a machine, and the development of an experimental scientific method. ## Definition of Science 1. **Science as an idea:** It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanations and observations about the natural and physical world. 2. **Science as an intellectual activity:** It encompasses a systematic and practical study of the natural and physical world. This process of study involves systematic observation and experimentation. 3. **Science as a body of knowledge:** It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a body of knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world. This is what we refer to as school science. 4. **Science as a personal and social activity:** This explains that science is both knowledge and activities done by human beings to develop better understanding of the world around them. It is a means to improve life and to survive in life. It is interwoven with people's lives. ## The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons: 1. Seventeenth-century scientists and philosophers were able to collaborate with members of the mathematical and astronomical communities to effect advances in all fields. 2. Scientists realized the inadequacy of medieval experimental methods for their work and so felt the need to devise new methods (some of which we use today). 3. Academics had access to a legacy of European, Greek, and Middle Eastern scientific philosophy that they could use as a starting point (either by disproving or building on the theorems). 4. Institutions (for example, the British Royal Society) helped validate science as a field by providing an outlet for the publication of scientists' work. # Historical Antecedents in the Philippines ## Precolonial Period ### A. Culture and Traditions The early Filipinos are believers of superstition and as such, they practiced animism. Animism is the belief that various objects, places, and creatures possess distinctive spiritual qualities. Having believed that these spirits accompany them in their daily lives and somehow control what occurs in their surroundings, the early Filipinos fully rely on them and as such, would solely observe natural phenomena on the basis of these superstitious beliefs. Unlike now that we know that the reason when it rains is because of the water cycle that naturally occurs, or when it rains unusually hard, there is a developing low-pressure area in a certain location, the early inhabitants of our country would associate these to the doings of their diwatas. These beliefs halted the early inhabitants of this archipelago to observe natural phenomena as they are. ## Spanish Regime ### A. Education Various decrees were issued in Spain calling for the establishment of a school system in the colony but these were not effectively carried out. Primary instruction during the Spanish regime was generally taken care of by the missionaries and parish priests in the villages and towns and as such, primary education was highly religious in nature. On the whole, however, higher education was pursued for the priesthood or for clerical positions in the colonial administration. ## American Regime Science and technology in the Philippines advanced rapidly during the American regime. This was made possible by the simultaneous government encouragement and support for an extensive public education system; the granting of scholarships for higher education in science and engineering; the organization of science research agencies, and establishment of science-based public services. You see, education plays a major role in the advancement of science and technology. All Filipino children were given the right to education despite economic and social status. This was a project of the Department of Public Instruction that aimed to provide free primary education to Filipinos but utilized English as the primary mode of instruction. ## Commonwealth Period The Commonwealth period marked the beginning of the country's transformation to a politically independent nation. This period brought about the birth of several government corporations that are still standing up to this day. The goal of the Commonwealth period is for the Philippines to achieve economic self-reliance. But was this goal attained? The answer is No. Why? This is because foreign trade policies are still controlled by the Americans during this time. And another reason is that Japanese troops came in the country creating yet another chaos in our society. ## Period since Independence The period since independence gave birth to learning institutions, the Department of Education and Culture (now, DepEd) and the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). The major role of DepEd is to supervise the academic institutions under the basic education and to create policies for the welfare of Filipino students in basic education. | Internal Influences | External Influences | |---|---| | Survival | Foreign Colonizers | | Culture | Trades with Foreign Countries | | Economic Activities | International Economic Demands | | National Goals | | | International Treaty | | | Legal Frameworks | | | Social Needs, Issues, and Problems | Science and Technology <br>- Policies <br>- Programs <br> - Projects | ## Intellectual Revolutions A paradigm shift—or paradigm change—happens when scientific activity and experimentation begins to contradict premises that experts previously considered unshakable. As a result, a new and different paradigm replaces the dominant paradigm of its day. ### A. Copernican Revolution The Copernican Revolution marked the transition from the belief that the Earth was the center of the universe to the heliocentric model of the universe where the sun is the center. Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish mathematician and astronomer, proposed that the sun was stationary in the center of the universe, and the earth revolved around it. Copernicus' heliocentric model shifted the Earth away from the center of the Solar System and introduced the concept of the Earth rotating on its own axis, resulting in day and night. The Earth, along with other heavenly bodies, revolves around the sun. People were skeptical of the heliocentric model because they were taught that the Earth came first, before everything else. Copernicus was accused of heresy and even persecuted as a result. They stood firm in their beliefs and refused to accept the heliocentric model of the universe as correct. The following intellectuals contributed to the gradual shift from geocentric to heliocentric thinking: - **Johannes Kepler**, German astronomer, stated that the planets move in elliptical orbits and the sun at the center; - **Galileo Galilei** developed a telescope and observed Venus. - **B. Darwinian Revolution** The Darwinian Revolution began with Charles Darwin's book "On the Origin of Species." This book introduced the "Theory of Evolution," which emphasizes that organisms result from evolution or a change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. He proposed that organisms arise and evolve through the natural selection of slight inherited variations that improve an individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Darwin's main contribution to science was that he explained a mechanism, or a way, for evolution to occur. This mechanism is called natural selection, which is a process in which individuals that are well-suited to their environment will survive and reproduce better than other individuals. Natural selection is sometimes also called survival of the fittest. Fitness, in biology, is the ability of an organism to survive and reproduce. So, an individual that produces more offspring than another is considered more fit. Survival of the fittest just means those individuals that are more fit (or better able to survive and reproduce) are the ones that survive and pass on their favorable traits (adaptations) to future generations. Remember adaptations are traits that enhance survival and reproduction. So, another definition for adaptation is a trait that increases fitness. ### C. Freudian Revolution In the 19th Century, Freud developed his theory of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is the study of human behavior. Freud's theory explained that many conscious and unconscious factors could influence behavior and emotions. **Freud's Three Levels of the Mind** Freud delineated the mind in distinct levels, each with their own roles and functions. The three levels of the mind are: - **The preconscious** consists of anything that could potentially be brought into the conscious mind. - **The conscious mind** contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. This also includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily and brought into awareness. - **The unconscious mind** is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. The unconscious contains contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. He also argued that personality is a product of three conflicting elements: id, ego, and superego. - **The id** operates in our unconscious mind. It is like the little devil sitting on the cartoon character's shoulder that is always selfish and needy. It operates according to the pleasure principle - all of your needs should be met immediately. - **The superego** is like the little angel. It is always concerned with what is socially acceptable The superego pushes you to obtain the ego ideal, or your view of what is right. It also represents your conscience, or your view of what is considered to be wrong. - **The ego** is the part of the personality that makes your decisions. The ego is in the middle, makes the decision, and faces the consequences. The ego operates according to the reality principle - the idea that the desires of the id must be satisfied in a method that is both socially appropriate and realistic. The ego must mediate the demands of the id, the superego, and reality. ## Philippine Policies We resolve, between now and 2030, to end poverty and hunger everywhere; to combat inequalities within and among countries; to build peaceful, just and inclusive societies; to protect human rights and promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls; and to ensure the lasting protection of the planet and its natural resources. We resolve also to create conditions for sustainable, inclusive and sustained economic growth, shared prosperity and decent work for all, taking into account different levels of national development and capacities. The Philippine Development Plan of 2017-2022, discussed various strategies that would accomplish the following goals: - to build a prosperous, predominantly middle-class society where no one is poor; - to promote a long and healthy life; - to become smarter and more innovative; and - to build a high-trust society. These goals were based on a collective long-term vision of Filipinos to have: “matatag, maginhawa, at panatag na buhay”. - **Key Areas from the Philippine Development Plan (2017-2022):** - Enhancing the social fabric (malasakit) - Inequality-reducing transformation (pagbabago) - Increasing growth potential (patuloy na pag-unlad) ## **C. Major Development Programs in Science and Technology in the Philippines** 1. **Doppler Radars** - It was built to further improve weather forecasting capability and disaster risk reduction in the country. 2. **RA 7687 Scholarship Program** - it shall provide for scholarships, grants-in-aid, or other forms of incentives to deserving science students and other specially gifted citizens to enable them to pursue higher education or training in areas of science and technology. 3. **SETUP** - SETUP is a nationwide strategy to encourage and assist SMEs (small and medium enterprises) to adopt technological innovations to improve their operations and thus boost their productivity and competitiveness. 4. **Balik Scientist Act** - According to the law itself, it aims to “strengthen the scientific and technological human resources of the academe, public and private institutions, including locally registered enterprises in order to promote knowledge sharing and accelerate the flow of new technologies into the country.” 5. **Philippine Space Agency** - The PhilSA is tasked to assist the country in the creation, development, and implementation of national and international space policies, among other directives. ## Technology as a Way of Revealing 1. **Mortality Rate** Due to technology, lesser women and children die during birth, assuring robust population and strong workforce. Medical care for premature infants allows them to survive and develop normally, while proper maternal care ensures that mothers can fully recover and remain empowered. 2. **Average Lifespan.** Aside from the reason that people engage less in combat and are less likely to die in treatable diseases now as opposed to then, science is able to prolong lives by enhancing living status and discovering different remedies to most diseases. Distribution of medicines is also made easier and faster. 3. **Literacy Rate** Access to education provided to more individuals generally creates a more informed public that could determine a more just society. 4. **Gross Domestic Product (GDP)** Although not an indicator of an average person's lifestyle in a certain country, it is often used to determine the value of the country's goods and services produced within the territory given a certain time period. Higher country income is brought upon by high productivity, often an indicator of presence of technology. ## The Good Life and the Role of Technology to Achieve It. Plato's philosophy asserts that there are two realms: the physical realm and the spiritual realm. The physical realm is the material stuff we see and interact with on a daily basis; this physical realm is changing and imperfect, as we know all too well. The spiritual realm, however, exists beyond the physical realm. Plato calls this spiritual realm the Realm of Forms (also called the Realm of Ideas or Realm of Ideals). Plato's Theory of Forms asserts that the physical realm is only a shadow, or image, of the true reality of the Realm of Forms. So what are these Forms, according to Plato? The Forms are abstract, perfect, unchanging concepts or ideals that transcend time and space; they exist in the Realm of Forms. Aristotle argued that reality is grounded in the tangible world or physical world we perceive with our senses. **Telos** - it is a concept from Aristotle's philosophy that refers to the inherent purpose or ultimate goal of an entity. ## Greatest Happiness Principle In the 18th century, John Stuart Mill proposed the greatest happiness principle as a foundational concept in utilitarian ethics. So, according to his principle, the actions that produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people are considered morally right. The key idea behind the greatest happiness principle is to prioritize the happiness and well-being of both individuals and society as a whole. So, it suggests that the ultimate goal of ethical decision making should be to maximize happiness and minimize suffering. ## Different philosophical perspectives that would lead us to human flourishing. 1. **Materialism**- is the engrossment with physical objects over intellectual or spiritual experiences and relationships This type of philosophy focuses on achieving physical possessions over developing interpersonal relationships or spiritual enlightenment. 2. **Hedonism**- prioritizes pleasure as the ultimate goal of life, emphasizing the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain in the present moment. 3. **Stoicism**- emphasizes finding happiness and fulfillment through acceptance of the natural order and maintaining inner tranquility amidst life's uncertainties. It encourages individuals to focus on what they can control and cultivate emotional resilience in the face of adversity. 4. **Theism** - It refers to the belief that a divine being possesses unlimited power and authority. 5. **Humanism**- is a philosophical and ethical perspective that emphasizes the dignity, worth, and potential of human beings. Humanism is a progressive philosophy of life that, without theism or other supernatural beliefs, affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good. ## Lesson 5 Human Flourishing in Terms of Science and Technology Eudaimonia also spelled eudaemonia, in Aristotelian ethics, the condition of human flourishing or of living well. Eudaimonia is all about living your best life and flourishing as a human being. So you're striving as a human being. Think of it as more than just feeling happy - it's about thriving, it's about reaching your full potential in life. Aristotle believed that eudaimonia, or living well, is the ultimate goal and the highest human good. According to Aristotle, achieving eudaimonia involves performing our unique function well, so, for humans, he thought that our characteristic function is to use our reason and intellect to think “to choose, and to act virtuously. So, living a good life means using our mind and virtues to the best of our ability. In essence, Aristotle encourages us to strive for eudaimonia by using our reason and virtues to lead fulfilling and meaningful lives. ### Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle explores the idea that eudaimonia comes from philosophical contemplation and being active in the political life of the community. You have an active participation in making our communities a better place to live. ### Eudaimian Ethics Eudaimonia is achieved through the activity of the soul in harmony with complete virtue. So in simple terms, it's about living in alignment with our moral values and being the best version of ourselves. ## Science, Technology, and Human Flourishing Human flourishing - it is all about living our best lives It’s about using our talents, abilities, and our virtues to fullest potential. **Verification theory** is basically all about figuring out what makes a sentence meaningful. A sentence is only meaningful if you can verify confirm it through observation, experience, or experiments. Example: The cat is on the mat or water boils at 100 degrees Celsius are both meaningful sentences because we can verify them through observation or a scientific experiment. On the other hand, the sky is blue because unicorns exist are considered meaningless because they can't be verified through observation or logical analysis. You need to verify it through observation, experience, or experiments. So it helps us understand that for a sentence to become meaningful, we need to provide factual evidences. **Verificationism** - In verificationism, if you do not perceive the information through your senses—your five senses: sense of sight, sense of smell, sense of taste, sense of hearing, sense of touch—then your sentence is considered invalid. For example, the fireworks is noisy is valid because your hearing can perceive that fireworks are loud. So, in verificationism, your senses need to be involved for the knowledge or information to be considered valid. Verificationism is rooted in or comes from the empiricist doctrine. Empiricist, empirical, or empiricism refers to gathering information through observation and experience. In the **falsification theory**, it helps us figure out what makes a scientific statement or a statement itself meaningful and how we can access whether it's valid or not. If you cannot prove that the sentence is false, it is meaningless. This is the opposite of the verification theory. So, for example, "all swans are white." This statement can potentially be falsified by finding a single black swan. So, when your statement is "all swans are white," you need to prove that not all swans are white You need to find a swan of a different color, for example, a black swan. This makes the statement meaningful because you have proved that the statement "all swans are white" is false. So, it is the opposite of the verification theory. In falsification theory, you need to identify a falsehood or false statement to prove that the knowledge is valid. There needs to be something wrong for the statement to be meaningful. ## Science and Results **So, in a report, the results section presents the objective facts derived from the study. **These come from your study, where you gathered the data. These facts are the direct outcomes of your experimentation, observation, or experience, and are often presented in the form of data, measurements, or observations. **When it comes to the implication, it refers to the broader meaning or significance of the findings. **You can find this under the discussion section of your study. In the discussion section, scientists explore the implications of their results and discuss the potential interpretations or ramifications. Implications may include recommendations and suggestions for future research, suggestions for practical applications, or insights into the broader context of your study. **So, results are much more specific and detailed, while implications focus more on recommendations and suggestions. **They are found under the discussion section. When we say science is inherently objective, its findings are based on evidence and data rather than personal opinion or biases. **Statistical significance** – indicates probability of obtaining results by chance alone. Statistical significance is important in scientific research because it allows scientists to distinguish between meaningful findings and random data. By determining whether the observed results are statistically significant, scientists can draw more confident conclusions about the relationships or effects they're investigating.