Mesoamerica (Maya & Inca) Science & Technology - PDF

GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Development of Science & Technology in Mesoamerica Overview Mesoamerica (meso, Greek word which means “middle”) refers to the diverse civilizations that share...

GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Development of Science & Technology in Mesoamerica Overview Mesoamerica (meso, Greek word which means “middle”) refers to the diverse civilizations that shared similar cultural characteristics in the geographic areas comprising the modern-day countries of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Mesoamerica , particularly the 33 Valley of Mexico, was the heartland for the earliest of civilizations in the Americas. It Maya encompassed a diverse environment ranging from mountainous Civilization and semi-arid desert conditions to tropical rain forests. The Astronomy domestication of maize, beans, squash and chili, as well as the Calendar turkey and dog, caused a transition from Paleo-Indian hunter- Writing System gatherer tribal grouping to the organization of sedentary Spoken Language agricultural villages. In the succeeding formative period, Number System agriculture and cultural traits such as a complex mythological and Architecture religious tradition, a vigesimal numeric system, and a complex calendric system, a tradition of ball playing, and a distinct Agriculture architectural style, were diffused through the area. Also in this Medicine period villages began to become socially strati ed and develop Other Technology into chiefdoms with the development of large ceremonial centers, Religion & Culture interconnected by a network of trade routes for the exchange of Decline of Maya luxury goods such as obsidian, jade, cacao, cinnabar, Spondylus Self Assessment shells, hematite, and ceramics. While Mesoamerican civilization did Test know of the wheel and basic metallurgy, neither of these technologies became culturally important. Inca Civilization Objectives Historical Overview Astronomy At the end of the lesson, you should be able to Calendar ➡ explain how the Mesoamericas (Maya, Inca) became Number System advanced in science and technology during their time; Inca Technology Medicine ➡ learn how to use the Mesoamericas’ number, accounting and Agriculture calendar systems. Medicine ➡ describe the daily life of Mesoamerica’s people and their Fall of Inca Empire means of making their lives better. Self Assessment Tests For SLSU use only Page 33 of 81 fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Lecture Notes The people who inhabited Central America formed a number of advanced civilizations between 1500 B.C. and 1200 A.D. As one civilization faded in the region, another developed to take its place. Later civilizations borrowed many aspects of culture from earlier civilizations, as well as creating their own unique traditions. The three most dominant and advanced civilizations that developed in the Americas prior to the arrival of the Europeans were the Maya, the Inca, and the Aztec. The Maya The indigenous people of Mexico and Central America Inhabited the lands comprising modern- day Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco, and Chiapas in Mexico and southward through Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras. Responsible for a number of remarkable scienti c achievements in astronomy, architecture and engineering, agriculture, mathematics and communications. Astronomy The ancient Maya were keen astronomers The most important planet to the Mayans and they believed that the will and actions was Venus, which they associated with war. of the gods could be read in the stars, Battles and wars would be arranged to moon, and planets; many of their most coincide with the movements of Venus, important buildings were built with and captured warriors and leaders would astronomy in mind. likewise be sacri ced according to the position of Venus in the night sky. The The Mayans believed that the Earth is at Maya carefully recorded the movements of the center of all celestial bodies and that Venus and determined that its year, the sun, the moon and the stars moved relative to Earth, not the sun, was 584 days around it. In addition, they believed that long, amazingly close to the 583.92 days the stars, moons, sun, and planets were that modern science has determined. gods; they depend their decisions about different aspects of their lives, even war, on The Sun was of greatest importance to the the movement of the celestial bodies. The ancient Maya. The Mayan sun god was position of the sun, the moon and Venus Kinich Ahau; he would shine in the sky all were critical to the observance of their day before transforming himself into a festivities and special occasions. jaguar at night to pass through Xibalba. For SLSU use only Page 34 of 81 fi fi GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Xibalba was the name given by the Mayan serpent appears to slip down into the to the underworld. The Maya believed that Earth. the underworld was ruled by a group of gods (possibly 9 or 14), known collectively as the lords of the underworld. Many of these lords could occasionally come up to the world of the living where they would spread misery and disease. The Maya also believed that each astronomical god had its own manifestation in the underworld. For example, the Sun God Kinich Ahau, when he was travelling through the As the sun sets in the west and the shadows lengthen underworld at night, became the Jaguar in the ancient Mayan city of Chichen Itza, a collective God of the Underworld. sigh of amazement goes up from thousands of people standing at the foot of the Pyramid of Kukulcan on March 20-21, the spring equinox. The moon was nearly as important as the sun for the ancient Maya. Mayan Mayan knowledge and understanding of astronomers analyzed and predicted the celestial bodies were advanced for their moon’s movements with great accuracy. time; in fact, they were expert at predicting On the other hand, the stars were less solar phenomena, such as solar eclipses important to their mythos than the sun, and equinoxes. They also used astrological moon, Venus and other planets. However, cycles to aid in planting and harvesting the stars shift seasonally and were used by and developed two calendars that are as Mayan astronomers to predict when the precise as those we use today. seasons would come and go, which was useful for agricultural planning. Hence, the Calendar stars were of more practical use than many other aspects of Mayan astronomy. The Mayas were fascinated with astronomy and developed very advanced calendrical The Maya integrated their advanced systems. The Maya Calendar is a fairly understanding of astronomy into their complex system of calendars that temples and other religious structures. The accurately predicts the cycles of many pyramid at Chichén Itzá in Mexico, for celestial bodies. These calendars consist of example, is situated according to the sun’s the Long Count, the Tzolkin (divine location during the spring and fall calendar), and the Haab (civil calendar). equinoxes (astronomical event when the Each of them is cyclical; thus, a certain sun crosses the equator and day and night number of days must occur before a new everywhere on earth are approximately of cycle can begin. equal length). At sunset on these two days, The Haab or solar calendar has 365 days, the pyramid casts a shadow on itself that which is divided into 18 months of 20 days aligns with a carving of the head of the each and one month which is only 5 days Mayan serpent god. The shadow forms the long called Wayeb-was considered serpent’s body; as the sun sets, the unlucky and dangerous time at the end of For SLSU use only Page 35 of 81  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Haab' began at zero, meaning the last day of the month was numbered 19 rather than 20. This 365-day calendar works like our own calendar; the rst month is Pop and the rst day of the month is 0 Pop followed by 1 Pop, and 2 Pop, and so on until 19 Pop. The Haab calendar was the foundation of agrarian calendar and was used in planning out their agricultural year. The month names are associated with the cycle of the rains, agriculture, and harvesting. For example, the month of Muan (The The 18 months of Haab calendar have 20 days each; the last 5 days of the year is called Wayeb. Moan Bird) is the beginning of rainy season; when a rain shower begins the year. The Mayas stayed home and birds make a lot of noise. neglected all activities during this time to avoid disaster. They had various customs The Tzolkin, and rituals that they practiced during these meaning the days to ward off evil spirits. distribution of the days, is also called the Divine Calendar and the Sacred Round. It is a 260-day calendar with The Tzolkin calendar was used 20 periods of for religious and ceremonial 13 days, and it events. is used to determine the time of religious and The 19 months of the Haab calendar, in order, are: ceremonial events. In addition, the Maya Pop, Wo, Sip, Sotz, Sak, Xul, Yaxkin, Mol, Chen, Yax, also used the Tzolkin for the practice of Sak, Keh, Mak, Kankin, Muwan, Pax, Kayab, divination in seeking answers to the future. Kumku, Wayeb. The days in each period of the Tzolkin are numbered from one to 13. Each day is also The calendar has an outer ring of Mayan given a name (glyph) from a sequence of glyphs, which represent each of the 19 20 day names. These named days are months. Each day is represented by a similar to our modern calendar system’s number in the month followed by the seven named days in the period we call a name of the month. Unlike today's week, i.e. Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, etc.. calendars, which start numbering at 1, the The 260-day count began with 1 Imix’, For SLSU use only Page 36 of 81 fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE followed by 2 Ik', 3 Ak'b'al, and 4 K’an, etc., ➡ Count the number of years (complete until 13 B'en had been reached. However, cycle) from January 1, 2013 to the naming sequence only allowed for use December 31, 2019, then multiply it of the rst 13 numbers, thus, the next by 365 days. Add 1 day for the leap named position in the 260-day cycle after year (2016). See the table below. 13 B'en would be called 1 Ix, followed by 2 ➡ Count the number of days from Men, 3 K'ib', and 4 Kab'an, etc. The last January 1, 2020 to August 31, 2020. day of the 260-day cycle would fall on 13 But rst determine the months with Ajaw. Once it was reached, the cycle 29, 30 and 31 days. See the table would then begin to repeat commencing below. with 1 Imix' all over again. Thus, one full cycle of the sacred Tzolkin cycle is ➡ Count the remaining number of days completed when all thirteen numbers from September 1, 2020 to have been combined with all 20 sacred September 7, 2020. (see the third row day signs (13 x 20 = 260). of the table below). The Long Count is an astronomical ➡ Lastly, compute the total number of calendar which is used to track longer days from December 22, 2012 to periods of time. The Maya called it the September 7, 2020 by adding the “universal cycle.” The ve cycles of time computed days, which are tabulated used for the Long Count recording of any in the third column of the table below. date after the base starting point of 3114 BCE were called the Baktun (144,000 Date No. of Days days), Katun (7,200 days), Tun (360 days), Uinal (20 days), and Kin (1 day). Dec. 22, 2012 10 - Dec.31, 2012 On December 21, 2012, the Maya Long Jan.1, 2013 - (7yrs x 365days) + Count Date was 12.19.19.19.19. This is the 2,556 Dec.31, 2019 1 day end of the 13th Baktun; therefore, December 22, 2012 in the Long Count Jan1, 2020 - 5 mos x 31 days Aug.31, 2020 (Jan, Mar, May, Jul, 155 Calendar can be written as 13.0.0.0.0, Aug) meaning 13 baktuns, 0 katun, 0 tun, 0 uinal and 0 kin. 1 mo x 29 days 29 (Feb) But, how can be write the dates after 2 mos x 30 days December 21, 2012 using the Long Count 60 (Apr & June) calendar? Say for example, the date is Sep 1-7, 2020 7 September 7, 2020, how this can be written using the Long Count Calendar? Total Number of Days 2817 Follow the following procedures in doing so; ➡ Compare the computed total number of days to baktun; since 1 baktun is ➡ Count if how many days were there equivalent to 144,000 days and the total from December 22, 2012 to computed number of days is only 2,817 December 31, 2012 (see the rst row days, then the date in the Long Count will of the table at the right). still begin with 13 baktun. For SLSU use only Page 37 of 81 fi fi fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE ➡ Find if how many katun are there in 2,817 expressed as 13.0.7.14.17, which means days. Similarly, there is 0 katun in 2,817 13 baktun.0 katun.7 tun. 14 uinal.11 kin. days because 1 katun is equivalent to ANY QUESTION? Let me give you another 7,200 days; hence the date September 7, example. Express March 27, 2019 in baktun, 2020 can now be written as 13.0 (13 katun, tun, uinal and kin of the Long Count baktun.0 katun). calendar. ➡ Then, nd if how many tun are there in Computations: 2,817 days by dividing 2,817 days by 360 days (1 tun), as shown below; eventually, there is 7 tun in 2,817 days. (do not round Dec. 22, 2012 - 10 days off the answer; consider only the whole Dec.31, 2012 number). The date, September 7, 2020, Jan. 1, 2013 - (6yrs. x 365 days) 2,191 days can now be expressed as 13.0.7, which Dec. 31, 2018 + 1 day means 13 baktun.0 katun.7 tun. Jan. 2019 31 days 2,817 days ÷ 360 days/tun = 7 tun Feb. 2019 28 days ➡ To continue, multiply the number of tun Mar. 1-27, 2019 27 days (from the previous step) by 360 days (1 tun) and subtract the result from 2,817 Total Number of Days 2,287 days days (see the computation below). 7 tun x 360 days/tun = 2,520 days Number of baktun - 13 2,817 days - 2,520 days = 297 days Number of katun - 0 ➡ Determine the number of uinal (20days) Number of tun - 6 in the remaining 297 days by dividing 297 2,287 days ÷ 360 days = 6.35 days by 20 days (see the computation below). Number of uinal - 6 297 days ÷ 20 days/uinal = 14 uinal 6 tun x 360days/tun = 2,160 days And using the result, September 7, 2020 2,287 days - 2,160 days = 127 days can now be further written as 13.0.7.14, 127 days ÷ 20 days/uinal= 6.35 which means 13 baktun.0 katun.7 tun.14 uinal. Number of kin -7 ➡ And again, multiply the computed 6 uinal x 20 days/uinal = 120 days number of uinal (from the previous step) by 20 days (1uinal) and subtract it from 127 days - 120 days = 7 days 297 days, as shown below. And lastly, March 27, 2019 can now be 14 uinal x 20 days/uinal = 280 days expressed as 13.0.6.6.7 in the Long Count 297 days - 280 days = 17 days calendar. ➡ Finally, that 17 days is the number of last Understand? Do you have any question? days (17 kin) in the Long Count calendar. Okay, let’s have another example. This In the Long Count calendar, the time, let us try December 19, 2013. September 7, 2020 can now completely For SLSU use only Page 38 of 81 fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Computations: Number of baktun - 13 Number of katun - 0 Dec. 22, 2012 - 10 days Dec.31, 2012 Number of tun - 1 Jan, Mar, May, July, 6 mos x 363 days ÷ 360 days = 1.008 186 days Aug, Oct, 2013 31 days Number of uinal -0 Feb. 2013 28 days Number of kin -3 Apr, Jun, Sep, Nov, 4 mos x 120 days 2013 30 days 363 days - 360 days = 3 days Dec. 1-19, 2013 19 days Therefore, December 19, 2013 can now be expressed as 13.0.1.0.3 in the Long Total Number of Days 363 days Count calendar. Check Your Understanding (CYU #1): Write the following dates using the Mayas’ Long Count calendar. Show the computation. Go to Google Classroom and click the the GForm to answer this activity. 1. August 25, 2017 3. July 29, 2016. 5. May 13, 2020 2. December 2, 2013 4. November 17, 2018 Maya civilization was one of the most Number System advanced civilizations of its time. The The ancient Maya used a vigesimal Mayas developed a variety of technology (Base-20) notation in which each position throughout their history; and they came up is a power of twenty (instead of ten as in with a number of indigenous inventions our decimal system). And one of the great which were unique to their time period. intellectual accomplishment of the Maya They are considered one of the most was the use of the concept of zero. This scienti cally advanced societies in made their number system far more Mesoamerica. Their inventions and advanced than can be expected of a innovations marked a high point in the civilization of that era. In their numeral Mesoamerican culture before the Spanish system, the ancient Maya only used three invasion in 16th century which put an end symbols to represent all numbers. A dot to the Mayan cities. has a numerical value of 1, a line (or bar)has numerical value of 5, and a shell has the value of 0. For SLSU use only Page 39 of 81 fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Like our number system, vigesimal number system is positional, which means Powers Base-20 Value to say that the position of a numeric 206 64,000,000 symbol indicates its place value. In the following table you can see the place 205 3,200,000 value in its vertical format. 204 160,000 203 8,000 202 400 201 20 200 1 The place value in the vigesimal number system. what is the value of this number as shown in the gure below; To do so, follow the instructions below; Ancient Maya used only three symbols, dot, line or bar, and shell, in their 1. Starting from the bottom, we have the vigesimal number system. ones place. There are two bars and three dots in this place. Since each bar Unlike our system, where the ones place is worth 5, we have 13 ones when we starts on the right and then moves to the count the three dots in the ones place. left, the Mayan systems places the ones on the bottom of a vertical orientation and moves up as the place value increases. When numbers are written in vertical form, there should never be more than four dots 13 x 1 = 13 in a single place. When writing Mayan numbers, every group of ve dots becomes one bar. Also, there should never be more than three bars in a single place…four bars would be converted to one dot in the next place up. For example, For SLSU use only Page 40 of 81 fi fi GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE 2. Looking to the place value above it NOTE: you can also use the power of (the twenties places), we see there are twenty (exponential form as shown in the two bars and one dot so we have table in the left hand of this page). See eleven twenties. more examples in the next page. 11 x 20 = 220 3. Then, on the top of the 20s place value is the 400s (202). There is only one dot on this place value, that mean to say we have only one 400s, 1 x 400 = 400 4. Lastly, add 13, 220 and 400. This nally gives us the equivalent Hindu-arabic number of 633. Here is another example and solution; For SLSU use only Page 41 of 81 fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Check Your Understanding (CYU #2): Find the value of the following Mayan numbers. Pattern your solution to the given examples; go to Google Classroom to answer this activity. This time, we are going to write our 285 ÷ 20 = 14 base-10 numbers (our number system) to ➡ Again, multiply 14 by 20 and the Mayan vigesimal number system result should be subtracted from (base-20). To gure out the Maya 285. The difference is the number for equivalent of a number from our decimal ones place value. system, you need to divide the number into powers of twenty (8000, 400, 20). 14 x 20 = 280 Let’s take 4285, for example; 285 - 280 = 5 ➡ Since 4,285 is less than 8,000 then we have to divide it, instead, by 400, ➡ Using the symbols of Mayan number system, we can now write 4,285 in 4,285 ÷ 400 = 10 vertical form, as shown below; (NOTE: Take only the whole number) ➡ Multiply 10 by 400 and subtract the result from 4,285. Then, divide it by 20. 10 x 400 = 4,000 4,285 - 4,000 = 285 For SLSU use only Page 42 of 81 fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Here is another example, 16,125; ➡ then draw the combination in the right column. ➡ 16,125 ÷ 8,000 = 2 Here is another example; ➡ 2 X 8,000 = 16,000 ➡ 16,125 - 16,000 = 125 + = ➡ 125 ÷ 400 = 0 ➡ 125 ÷ 20 = 6 ➡ 6 X 20 = 120 ➡ When the symbols at the bottom levels (ones place value) were added, the ➡ 125 - 120 = 5 result was four (4) bars. But it was mentioned earlier that there should All the highlighted not be more than three (3) bars in a numbers (5, 6, 0 & 2) single place and the four (4 bars) should be drawn using the should be converted to one dot in the Mayan symbols for such next place up. Then the result can now number in the vertical be drawn as shown in the gure at the form, the bottom is for the right. ones place value, as shown in the gure at the right; and that is how to write 16,125 in the Mayan number system. Addition and subtraction can also be + = performed using the Mayan vigesimal number system. This how to do their calculation; ➡ In subtraction, the common signs in the same levels are cancelled, and the remaining sign/s is/are copied as part + = of the answer. See the example below; _ ➡ In addition, combine the symbols from the left column with that of in the middle column starting from the bottom (ones place value). For SLSU use only Page 43 of 81 fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE ➡ The two bars on the rst grid and second grid can be cancelled; likewise the one dot in each grid can be cancelled, too. Eventually, the result of _ = subtracting the symbols in the rst grid by the symbols in the second grid is one bar. It should be drawn at the bottom of the third grid as shown below; ➡ One dot each in the rst and second grid can now be cancelled out. Finally, the difference can be drawn as shown below; ➡ The same thing should be done on the next levels; one bar and two dots can be cancelled from each grid in the second levels. The three dots in the Here is another example; third level of the rst grid should be simply copied on the third grid because the symbol on the second grid is zero. _ Solution: 1. First, convert one bar from the second and third levels of the rst grid into dots. The rst grid can be drawn as ➡ The bar on the rst grid (4th level) shown in the gure below; should be converted into dots (1 bar = 5 dots) so that the same number of common signs can be cancelled out from each grid. See the gure at the upper right hand corner; For SLSU use only Page 44 of 81 fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE 2. Subtraction can now be performed by cancelling equal numbers of the same symbols in each level of the grids; and the remaining symbol should be drawn in the third grid as shown in the gure at the right; Check Your Understanding (CYU #3): Go to Class to answer this activity. 1. Write the following base-10 numbers in Mayan vigesimal number system. Draw your answer using grid. (a) 160,403 (b) 2,645,840 (c ) 35,004 2. Find the sum or difference of the following Mayan numbers? Show the solution. + + _ (a) (b) (c) Architecture The Maya were an advanced society that stucco statues, and paint. Today, Maya ourished in Mesoamerica long before the architecture is important, as it is one of the arrival of the Spanish in the sixteenth few aspects of Maya life that is still century. They were skilled architects, available for study. building great cities of stone that remain even a thousand years after their Mayans lacked the technology that we civilization fell into decline. The larger have today; so, they needed a lot of masonry structures are the most commonly manpower to raise their magni cent remembered and explored examples of structures. The king-priests would Mayan architecture, which include public supervise the labor of the common buildings, palaces, temples, and ball people. These peasants would work on courts. They often decorated their theses construction projects to pay buildings with intricate stone carvings, homage to the king and state This normally For SLSU use only Page 45 of 81 fl fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE took place during the time that they were buildings was much more important than unable to do their agricultural work. The the inside. The mortar was also used to laborers had to carry loads of materials on nish the outside of buildings, coat oors, their backs or roll them on logs to get them and make sculptures. The mortar also from the source, maybe a nearby quarry, to helped keep everything in place. the construction site. There would be Unfortunately, in more humid areas the hundreds of peasants working on this stucco deteriorated quickly due to the construction site. dampness. Aside from the general laborers and priests, the Mayans also had specialized workers such as architects who would also oversee the construction of these buildings. The Mayans were not however credited for rst creating the initial design of the pyramid. There were other tribes like the Olmecs who were building a variation of the pyramid a thousand years before the Mayans. The Mayans re ned the art of pyramid building. They made them more complex and intricate. Maya laborers fit and mortar a temple’s limestone blocks. The materials used for building Mayan structures were normally types of stone Pyramids. These were the Maya’s most found in the area surrounding the city. signi cant structures and were built with Most commonly used was limestone. curved stones acting as steps with rounded Limestone was plentiful in most of the inset corners and chamfers around each Mayan settlements. There were usually platform. The pyramids were often built in quarries right outside the city where they jungle areas where the structures could would get their blocks for construction. soar high above the trees. There were They would chisel away the stone around usually shrines to the gods at the top. Some the block that they wanted and then of the Mayan pyramids were used for undercut it. The stones that they pulled sacri cial rituals while some were intended from the quarry would be re ned by to be untouched. Those built for sacri ce chipping and aking to a at surface. were meant to be climbed, since the sacri ce, often of humans, took place at the The Mayan people also used mortar on top. Priests moved from the earthly realm to their construction projects. They made the the sky by means of staircases, an act mortar by burning limestone in a very intended to bring them closer to their technical process. They layered the gods. Many pyramids had two to four limestone with wood and put a cylinder or stairways, usually connected in the center pipe up the middle of the stack. Next they by a platform used for ritual. The Temple of burned the pile to make the mortar. To the Kukulcan in Chichén Itzá has four stairways Mayans the outside appearance of their with 91 steps each. When you add the one For SLSU use only Page 46 of 81 fi fi fi fi fi fl fi fl fi fl fi GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE step at the temple entrance, the stairs total 365, the same number of days in the Mayan year. Temples. Like the Mayan pyramids, their temples were important because these were the venues for many religious ceremonies such as sacri cial rituals and were temples for gods. It is also home for Maya built majestic stone cities centered around the priests; they found some privacy in the pyramid-temples like Kukulkan, where people would go central courtyard of the temple. Apart from to worship their gods and participate in ceremonies this, temples were used as landmarks to timed to their highly sophisticated calendar. help in navigation. Temples were built by the Mayan with astronomy in mind; certain temples were aligned to the movement of Venus, the sun or moon. In the Lost World Complex at Tikal, for example, there is a pyramid which faces three other temples. If you're standing on the pyramid, the other temples are aligned with the rising sun on equinoxes and solstices. The Great Pyramid of the Lost World. Located just toward the east is a long terrace that includes three temples that were formerly used to observe the stars Ball Courts. Through archeological and mark the time for visual observations throughout discovery it became evident to experts that the year. Mayans were indeed pretty good sportsmen. The Mayans built grandiose ball courts to organize games that had ritualistic implications. The ball courts, large masonry structure, were usually placed at the base of a temple, because all games were held to honor the many Maya gods. Generally, these courts are situated near palace compounds and temples in the main acropolis area. The Temple of the Warriors is one of the most impressive and important structures at Chichen Itza. is The architecture of the court was usually approached by a broad stairway with a plain, stepped built in an I-shaped form, with two parallel ramp on either side, and each ramp has figures of walls consisting of benches for the standard-bearers to hold flags. Before the main spectators, while the North Tower, which entrance a chacmool reclined. On the top, serpent columns which had S shaped supported wooden lintels represents the “heavens”, was reserved for above the doorways. On the top of each serpent head is the ruler and other political elites. The two a shallow basin that could have been used as an oil lamp. For SLSU use only Page 47 of 81 fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE side parallel walls, which is set aside for the success of the peoples' agriculture, trade, indigenous people, were considered and overall health. “earth” and were engraved with gures of Mayan gods and demons; these walls had (Go to this link and watch how the Mayan a ring that the ball had to pass through. The ball game was played: https:// ball court itself lower than the other www.youtube.com/watch?v=jKvQjgC9sIY structure was considered the “underworld”. and https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=VYcWs7qJeCI) Primarily, the ball courts were built for ball games called Pok-A-Tok. Although it was played by people from all levels of Maya society for fun, Pok-A-Tok was also used as a way to settle con icts between warring groups and noblemen. It symbolized the struggle of life over death, and war and hunting. The main objective of the game was to pass the solid rubber (latex) ball With a length of 460 feet, a width of 150 feet through one of the rings. (including two 8-foot wide tilted walls), and a height of 25 feet, the Chichén Itzá ball court is the largest This game was played in teams of two or court yet discovered. three players. The players were not allowed to use their hands and feet- only their shoulders, elbows, wrist and hips and they wear protective padding (called yokes) around their waist and on one shin and forearm. Otherwise, the hard solid-rubber ball (about 20 lbs. and 10-30 cm in diameter) could have severely injured or killed them. Since the rings were so high The ring of the Mayan ball court that was embedded in and players were not allowed to use their each wall of the court. hands, it was extremely dif cult to get the ball through a ring. In fact, when a player manage to get a ball through a ring, that usually ended the game. The game ended otherwise when the ball touched the ground. The winners of the game were treated as heroes and given a great feast. The penalty for losing a game was sometimes unusually harsh: death. The leader of the team who Teams were composed of two or three players and were lost the game was sometimes killed. This t male only. in with the Mayan belief that human sacri ce was necessary for the continued For SLSU use only Page 48 of 81 fi fl fi fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Impact Maya Architecture others. They also planted and grew manioc or cassava. The ancient Maya engineered Maya architecture has had a profound variety of farming techniques in cultivating in uence on the region. Many features of the rainforests, swampy areas, mountainous Mayan architecture appear throughout and hillsides. The farmers in each city-state Central America today. The use of color, t their system to the land. open space, and texture provide ideas and guidelines that are evident in contemporary architecture. For example, in order to create open spaces in buildings, the Maya relied on courtyards, square buildings, and quadrangles. Included in this open space design was the use of platforms, creating a variety of shapes, sizes, and levels. Respect for the Mexican landscape has always been a constant. Building color and texture are Mayan staple crops include maize (or corn), beans, natural looking in order to compliment and squash, cacao, chili peppers and sweet potato. blend in with the environment. These styles are quite evident in Central America today. The Maya utilized the tropical forests that surrounded them to improve their lives. By building extensive canals, reservoirs, and raised elds, the Maya produced an abundant supply of food. Even today, modern farmers in remote regions of Central America are taught the agricultural methods of the Maya for their own harvesting. In fact, the Maya were so Mexico City showing modern architecture, city and a successful in producing food that they soon garden. created overpopulated cities, which in turn demanded a greater turnover of food The legacy of the Maya is revealed through production. their architectural ideas that provides present-day architects with a lesson on Terrace Farming. In the mountainous using the environment as a friendly tool to highlands, they used step farming or enhance a building, not hinder it. terrace farming, so that each step would be at and able to be irrigated to better grow Agriculture and harvest crops. The Mayan created the terraces by lining them with a wall at the Ancient Mayan were clever and border. This helped them eliminate any hardworking farmers who used a variety of erosion and also mitigate water runoff by techniques to raise enough food to feed to securing water within the elds. Maize and feed anyone who needed it in that city- other crops were grown on these terrace state. Their main essential crop was corn or farms which were watered using canals maize, grown together with beans and constructed by the Mayans in such a way as to squash as each provide support to the use water more ef ciently. For SLSU use only Page 49 of 81 fi fl fl fi fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Raised Bed Farming. In the swampy lowlands, the Maya built raised earth platforms, surrounded by canals, on which they could grow crops. To make a raised eld, the ancient Maya farmers dug up the mud and shaped it into raised elds that rose 2 to 4 feet above the water canals that surrounding them. Fish swam in the canals and plants like water lily grew on the canal, too, and help to keep the canals from drying up; the farmers would use the plants Mayan terrace farming in mountainous highlands. as fertilizer. These elds had to be kept in good repair, because the mud would go back into the channels on its own over time. However, there was something good that came from this, the Maya would dig up the mud on the bottom of the channels, which had lots of plant nutrition in it, and put it on top of the elds. This was a very effective way of farming for the Mayans, it would provide 2-3 harvests per year. Slash and Burn. Also know as “shifting”, it Raised bed farming was one of the farming techniques entails cutting down an area of forest, and used by ancient Maya farmers built in swampy areas. then burning the removed plants in order to use the ashes as fertilizer for the crops that will be planted. The farmers then planted and harvested their crops for two consecutive years and then leave the eld unplanted for about 2 years, or more; and move to another portion of the land. Then the Mayans chopped down any vegetation which grew up on it in the interim and drying vegetation was put to re. This method is suitable for loosely populated Maya farmers also used slash and burn method, (clearing land, burning it, and planting in the ashes. region that does not require large farmland; however, this would cause problems for a densely populated city Besides the three agricultural methods because when the population increases, outlined above, the Maya also used forest the amount of agricultural land would gardening, planting trees that provided increase exponentially. Since any large city economic bene t for them as food or rewood. requires a steady supply of food, the Cacao and gum trees were encouraged to grow, for example. The Maya also harvested Ancient Maya having to rely upon this kind from the wild, nding tubers, roots and berries of agriculture would have created serious they could eat. vulnerability. For SLSU use only Page 50 of 81 fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Medicine would be given hot foods such as garlic, pepper, ginger or onions. Mayan medical practice was a complex combination of mind, body, religion, ritual (Click this link for additional readings about and science. Health was the result of living the six principles of Mayan Healing; https:// according to the laws of nature and society, vitalitymagazine.com/article/medicine-of- while illness was the result of the the-ancient-mayamedicine-ancient-maya/) disobedience of those laws. The ancient Medicine was only Maya perceived health as “balance”, practiced by whereas illness and disease were shamans, the “imbalance”. Mayan medical texts are mediators between devoted to the treatment of symptoms the physical and based upon the effects of certain herbal spiritual worlds, and remedies which could be swallowed, ah-men, the disease smoked, snorted, rubbed on the skin, and throwers and even as laxatives. Herbal remedies were responsible for often employed according to the color of keeping life in the originating plant: balance. If an illness red for rashes, blood disorders & took hold of a city, it burns; was because the world was out of blue for neural sedatives; balance and the yellow (the color of bile) for diseases gods needed to The medicine men of of the liver & spleen. be appeased in ancient Maya some way and it society provided many white was generally avoided since it was the job of the services to their was seen as a signal of death. ah-men to communities and were held in high regard. Known for accomplish this. Hot and cold is also a key concept in their extensive knowledge healing and choosing what plants to use. and spirituality, medicine Both the shaman men were called upon for Many healers believed that a lot of sickness and the ah-men many reasons, but most is due to temperature change. For example, are selected often for their healing the body might experience a shock if it individuals who capabilities. receives very hot food and a cold drink, received an causing gastrointestinal problems. The ah- extensive education. Although there is no men would treat this by using the opposite speci c evidence of urological conditions kind of plant. If the person was suffering or treatments during the Mayan period, from a fever, diarrhea or vomiting for the shamans and ah-men did demonstrate example, they would be given cold plants considerable surgical skill. It is known that or food. An example of this in modern or they sutured wounds with human hair, they historic Mayan cultures would be cheese. were skilled skull-setters and trephined the On the other hand if the person was skull using primitive drills. suffering from a cold illness such as constipation, cramps or paralysis, they For SLSU use only Page 51 of 81 fi GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE They were also accomplished dental surgeons; they used their skills to place stunningly carved stone inlays, in precisely prepared cavities, cutting a perfect hole around the tooth enamel. These inlays were made of minerals such as turquoise, quartz, cinnabar, serpentine and jadeite; this decorative dental procedure was especially common amongst women. The adhesive Archaeologist dug up evidence that Mayan, regardless used to secure the inlays were liquid amber of their status in society, went to a dentist to have gems implanted to their teeth. The Mayan dentist used and the other from maguey plant. The obsidian to manually carve the holes in the teeth; they Mayan dentistry was not for corrective or used natural resin (like plant sap) to attach the gem restorative dental procedure, but rather for stones in place. religious or ritual purposes. (Click this link for additional readings about the history of Mayan dentistry: http:// en.dentalwhitemaker.com/service/history- of-maya-dentistry/) Other Mayan Technology Around the Mayan time, the wheel was found and was becoming famous everywhere. Other Mesoamerican civilizations excitedly used the wheel and found it miraculous, but the Mayans Artist’s impression of ancient Maya load carriers using decided that the wheel was no use to them, a tumpline to deliver goods to a local market. because they did not domesticated animals. The Mayans rmly thought that it would be more ef cient to use people to transport materials, and not use a cart. Tumpline. The Mayans developed a very important transport device, a device that is still used now. It was called a tumpline or a mecapal. It allowed the Mayans to carry 125 pounds on their backs with ease and A woman carries firewood using a tumpline. Numerous studies show that tumplines and other comfort. It consists of a leather strap head-carry techniques are more metabolically efficient positioned on top of the head, or across and physically healthy than the supposedly high-tech the forehead and a frame connected to the successors that fill today’s gear shops. other end of the strap or another strap that support the load. For SLSU use only Page 52 of 81 fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Road System. It was dif cult to get around the Mayan civilization because of the thick jungle and forests. It was very easy to get lost and lose your way around. The Mayans made roads, also called sacbe, along thick jungle roots and slopes to get around more easily and to travel between city-states. It is composed of large stones, rubble (rough fragment of stone; debris) and limestone. The sacbeob (plural of sacbe) were constructed in widths up to 10 meters and covered with white cast-in-place concrete Sacbe in Labna, Yucatan, Mexico. Sacbe comes from pavement. The pavement was elevated the Maya words “sac” (white) and “bé” (road). from one meter to three meters above the jungle oor. Sacbeob were built as communication paths to connect plazas and temples inside the Maya cities. The Maya used to travel from one city to another bare footed, whether for commercial or personal reasons. Because of the high temperatures of the peninsula’s climate, they used to travel at night, so it is thought that the sacbeob were white to re ect the moonlight so as to illuminate The Maya connected their cities with sacbe(s), or white their path. It is also thought that they had a road(s). Some were elevated as much as 15 feet above religious meaning, for they carried out a the surrounding topography. ritual before stepping onto the path. These were also used to maintain a social, political and economic link between the big cities and smaller communities; hence, these invention made Mayan life way more easier. It was believed that the Mayan road led us to building our modern day highways and concrete paved roads. Canoe. Trading was a very big deal in the Maya and traders traveled on foot and also on sea. They needed cargo vessels for their The ancient Maya were proficient canoeists for travel trading objects and the goods they and trade along rivers, on the sea around the Yucatan brought back home. Mayan ships were peninsula, and offshore. long, with a lot of paddlers moving the ship. A Mayan vessel carried cargo and until sail powered and motor driven vessels passengers. Seagoing canoes were used were made and used. For SLSU use only Page 53 of 81 fl fl fi GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Stela. A stela is a tall stone slab that is decorated with carved images and inscribed with hieroglyphic writing.The stela is read from top to bottom and they typically began with a date. Since penning down a stela took quite some time and hard work, so only really important stories were told on a stela. Some stelae describe a king’s divine right to rule. Others were built to honor an important event such as the heroic deed of a king. The hieroglyphic writing on the stela told about the event. The stelae (plural of stela) were placed Maya stelae are some of our best sources of Maya history. Often, stelae were designed with drawings so where the people could see them. Some that common Maya could understand them. historians refer to these ancient stone structures as stone trees. Masks. Mayan masks were representations of Mayan gods; also, it is part of a very sacred funeral ritual in the Mayan Classic Period from 250 to 900 AD. These were placed over the face of an important ruler when he died. The Mayan believed that the funeral mask will protect the ruler while descending into the underworld Xibalba in order to defeat the gods of death and to be able to ascend as the Mayan God of the Corn. These masks were assembled in the form of mosaics of jade, which was considered by the Mayan to be the most precious stone, and combined them with Death Mask of Pakal the Great. For much of his long turquoise, mother of pearl and obsidian. 68-year reign during the 7th century, Pakal was the One of the beautiful funeral masks most powerful person in the entire Americas. belonged to the famous King Pacal of Palenque in the state of Chiapas, Mexico. as sharks, etc. Thus, the masks were a physical method of representing the spirit Most of the Mayan masks were symbols of world. It is also clear that many of these their gods. Some masks were used for masks were used to intimidate their ceremonies, such as those worn by the enemies, like those that have faces that Shaman. Many Shamans wore four kinds of look like snakes and similar kinds of mask, but others wore eight of them. Each animals. Those who believed in the powers of these masks represented a spirit. The of this mask because of its “spirit”, believed masks may be human in form, but the that it protected the wearer through design is attributed to personal spirits such spiritual power. For SLSU use only Page 54 of 81  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE The Decline of the Maya Conclusion. The Mayas were an advanced civilization during their time. Progressively, Despite the Maya’s remarkable scienti c the Mayas were able to come up with ways achievements, their culture began to and means of making their lives better and decline toward the beginning of the 11th more ef cient. As a group, they were very century. The cause and scope of the expert farmers, and used their land to their decline is a matter of some debate today. advantage. The Mayan were highly Some believe that the Maya were wiped intelligent, as they were able to build and out by war, while others attribute their come up with their own original calendar demise to the disruption of their trade system, hieroglyphic writing, vigesimal routes. Still others believe that the Maya’s numeral system, road system, pyramids, agricultural practices and dynamic growth palaces and other architectural structures. resulted in climate change and With these developments however came deforestation. While much of what was left other social evils. Some of them were of the ancient Maya culture was considered human sacri ce, and the widening of the by the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th gap between the nobles and the poor. century, the legacy of Mayan scienti c achievement lives on in the discoveries that archeologists continue to make about this amazing ancient culture. The decline of the Maya civilization happened between 800 and 900 CE. One of the most common and believable theories was written in 2005 by James Diamond showing a study that the decline of the Maya Civilization was from deforestation and climate change. Although we do not know for sure if this is the actual reason why the Decline of the Maya happened but as of right now this is the most logical reasoning and theory to what happened. For SLSU use only Page 55 of 81 fi fi fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Self Assessment #6: The result of this test will reveal how much you understand the lesson and will be recorded as part of your performance. Go to your Google Classroom; click the link to redirect you in the Google Form to answer this test. Say aloud your promise of honesty (below) before taking the quiz. In taking this quiz, I (your name) understand that I may not work with anyone else, including conferring with others (student, or anyone else); exchanging information, answer or ideas; or in aiding or being aided by others in the completion of this test. I understand that failure to follow this rules is considered cheating, and may subject me to a significant reduction in my grade at the discretion of the professor. I certify that I have personally prepared the answers to this test in accordance with the above stated rules. 1. Ancient Maya astronomers used observations of the stars to determine (A) the best time for planting crops. (B) the best time for harvesting crops. (C) when to have religious celebrations. (D) all of these 2. What was the staple crop (most important food source) for the Maya people? (A) Rubber (B) Avocados (C) Maize or corn (D) Bananas 3. Which activity was most likely to take place at the top of the pyramid? (A) holding school. (B) holding a religious ceremony (C) watching for invaders (D) running a community meeting 4. What is the type of farming used in the rainforest where the vegetation was cut away then started on re to clear the land for planting crops? (A) slash and burn (B) terraced farming (C) raised platform farming (D) any of these 5. The Mayans were able to create a detailed calendar because of their advancements in (A) astronomy and physics (B) astronomy and agriculture (C) astronomy and mathematics (D) mathematics and art 6. What mathematical achievements is associated with the Maya? (A) geometry (B) fractions and decimals (C) the concept of algebra (D) the concept of zero 7. The ballgame that Mayas watched for entertainment was also (A) A sacred ritual (B) A game everyone played (C) A test of intellect (D) The way new kings were picked 8. What is the name of the number system that the Mayans used (A) Decimal system (B) Vigesimal system (C) Place value system (D) Arabic Numeral System 9. What symbols did Mayans use in their number system? (A) dots and lines (B) pebbles and sticks (C) pictures and hieroglyphs (D) A and C For SLSU use only Page 56 of 81 fi GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE 10. Why did the Maya have two separate calendars? (A) 1 was for religious festivals and the other was for farming. (B) 1 was for the upper class and the other was for the lower class (C) 1 was for the day and the other was for the night (D) The different kings could not agree on just one calendar 11. What was the biggest problem with slash-and-burn agriculture? (A) It wore out the soil (B) It drained the swamps (C) It destroyed the temples (D) Wild res spread easily 12. What led to the demise of the Maya? (A) possible drought (B) possible invasion (C) possible overuse of the land (D) possibly all of the above 13. On the spring and autumn equinoxes what special thing happens on the Temple of Kukulkan (the Feathered Serpent)? (A) Lava shoots out of the dragons mouth. (B) There is a lunar eclipse. (C) A snake like shadow appears on the side of the stairs. (D) There is a solar eclipse. 14. Which of the following was NOT an achievement of the Maya? (A) farming on oating gardens (B) developing accurate calendars (C) constructing pyramids and temples (D) the concept of zero 15. How is the number 5 written in the ancient Maya number system? (A) One bar (B) Five dots (C) Three bars and two dots (D) Five bars For SLSU use only Page 57 of 81 fi fl GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Use this page for your comments and suggestions (optional). Take a picture of this page with your comments and suggestions and send it to me thru Messenger using my personal account. For SLSU use only Page 58 of 81  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE The Inca The Inca Empire, also known as the Inka Empire or Incan Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America and ourished between 1400-1533 CE. The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was located in Cuzco in modern-day Peru. It ran along the Paci c coast and Andean highlands from the northern border of what is today called Ecuador to the Maule River in Chile. Famed for their unique art and architecture, they constructed nely- built and imposing buildings wherever they conquered, and their spectacular adaptation of natural landscapes with visitors at such world famous sites terracing, highways, and mountaintop as Machu Picchu. settlements continues to impress modern Historical Overview Although there are as many as four different Inca founding myths, Manco Capac features in all of them, and for this reason historians generally agree that he was a real person as well as being a mythical gure. The most prevailing foundation myth holds that Manco Cápac, the son of Inti the sun god, and his sister Mama Occlo, the daughter of the moon, were sent by the sun to nd a suitable place to build an empire. They were told to carry a special golden rod (tapac-yauri) with them at all times. This rod would sink into the ground when they had found the ideal location for their empire. Eventually, Manco Cápac also known as Manco Inca and Ayar they arrived at the fertile area around Manco was the first governor and founder of Cuzco, where they established themselves. the Inca civilization in Cusco, possibly in the early 13th century. Thus, Cuzco was founded – the rod plunged into the ground of Pacaritambo cave, near to the modern location of Cuzco. For SLSU use only Page 59 of 81 fl fi fi fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE Manco Capac is thought to have ruled for Astronomy was very important to the Inca between 20 and 40 years. He reformed civilization partly due to the importance of Inca society in many ways, including agriculture; Incas used astronomy for abolishing human sacri ce and forbidding agricultural purposes. For example, they tribesmen and women from marrying their built carefully and placed pillars on siblings. Ironically this latter rule did not mountains and hills overlooking Cuzco, so apply to nobility…which was rather when the Sun rose or set between these convenient considering Manco Capac pillars, they knew they had to plant at a married his own sister, Mama Occlo. She speci c altitude. bore him a son, Sinchi Roca, the second Inca Emperor. Also, Incas grouped the stars into constellations. They sorted the Manco Capac is remembered for being the constellations into two groups. The rst is guy who started it all, but the truth is that it most common; that is, the stars that are would be hundreds of years before the Inca linked in a connect-the-dots manner to tribe developed into the great civilization create pictures of animals, Gods, heroes, we revere today. and more. One of the known star grouping was Pleiades, which was believed to be Astronomy in uential over the well-being of animals, was seen by Incans as a huaca (meaning One of the Incas' most successful scienti c sacredness or holiness) to which the advances dealt with astronomy. The Incas Shamans would make regular sacri ces. built the sun temples (astronomical Huacas are sacred places where the observatories) at Machu Picchu and Pissac ancestors paid worship and honored their and were used by Inca’s astronomers, gods. They were also places where the usually priests, in studying the position of ancient mummies could be placed and also the sun, moon and the planet Venus. The honored. most crucial events for the Inca generally involved the rising and setting of the sun, moon, and stars. The worship of constellations by the Inca culture, and the knowledge of their importance in the agricultural cycle, managed to survive Spanish conquest and the colonial era. The Temple of the Sun at Machu Picchu likely served as a solar observatory and sacred site where high Inca priests performed rituals. For SLSU use only Page 60 of 81 fl fi fi fi fi fi GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE The second type of constellations could important constellation to the Inka. The only be observed when there were no bright stars Alpha and Beta Centauri serve stars; they were the dark spots or blotches as the llama's eyes, easily spotted when the on the Milky Way. These dark blotches were constellation rises in November. The considered as living animals. The animals constellation consists of two llamas, mother were believed to live in the Milky Way, and baby, with the baby below the mother, which they thought of as a river. The Inca nursing. were one of the few civilizations who were able to locate their constellations without Yutu (Tinamou ). The tinamou is a the presence of stars. Here are some of the partridge-like bird. In the Inka sky, this kite- animal constellations they identi ed: shaped constellation seems to pursue the constellation of the toad. (Tinamous eat Mach’acuay – the Serpent small frogs and lizards.) It appears in the Hanp’atu – the Toad sky in October and stays until July, its Yutu – the Tinamou disappearance marking the end of the potato harvest. Urcuchillay – the Llama Atoq – the Fox Hanp'atu (Toad). The toad was a very important animal for the Inka. They believed that the more toads croaked, the more likely it was that rain would soon begin. The appearance of the toad in the sky meant that it was time to plant. Mach'acuay (Serpent). Mach’acuay was said This painting shows some of the animal shapes that the to oversee all snakes on Earth. This Incas saw in the dark spots of the Milky Way. Photo by constellation emerges head- rst in August Koricancha Sun Temple/Cusco and begins to set in February, which Micheq (Shephred). Many say the matches the activity of real snakes in the shepherd is a woman, since in Andean Andes. communities women own the llama ocks while the men take care of them. This Calendar shepherd extends her arms towards the llamas, and her legs are close to the paws The Incas greatest development in of the fox. mathematics and science is probably their lunisolar calendar, a calendar that was Atoq (Fox). The fox is found at the feet of based on both the phases of the moon and the llama as if it were chasing her. Look the sun. closely: the celestial llama seems to be kicking the fox. The sun passes through this The 365-day solar calendar was based on constellation in December, the time baby the solar cycle. This calendar was used for foxes are born. economic activities such as agriculture, mining, warfare and construction. This Llamacñawin with Unallamacha (Eye of the calendar was very important to the Inca llama with baby llama). This was the most people because they depend on this to x For SLSU use only Page 61 of 81 fi fi fl fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE the days of planting. They check on which Humarraimi (October) – Period for the day the sun rose over the eastern tower invocation of the rain. and set on the western tower from a certain Ayamarca (November) – Time to location of main plaza of Cusco and mark worship the dead. that day for the planting of corn and potatoes. Also, they marked the day when Number System the sun rose between the towers for general sowing. It is often thought that mathematics can only develop after a civilization has On the other hand, the 328-day lunar developed some form of writing. However, calendar, which was based on the phases the Incas had developed a method of of the moon, was used to mark the days of recording numerical information called all the festivals. This 12-month calendar has quipu, which did not require writing 28 days in each month and; the two language. It is a collection of cord with calendars has a difference of 37 days. The knots in them; it consisted of colored spun 12 months of their calendar are as follows; and plied thread or string from llama or alpaca hair, or made of cotton cords. The Capac Raymi (December) – Great Feast Inca people used them for collecting data of the Sun and keeping records, monitoring tax obligations, properly collecting census Camay Quilla (January) – Penitence records, calendrical information, and for and fasting of the Incas; weeding of military organization. elds. Jatunpucuy (February) – Month of owers in which sacri ces with huge amounts of gold and silver were made; harvest of potato and other root crops. Pachapucuy (March) – Month of rain, animals were sacri ced. Arihuaquis, (April) – Maturation of maize and potatoes. Jatuncusqui (May) – Harvest month. Aucaycusqui (June) – Feast in honor of the Sun god (Inti Raymi), coincides with the winter solstice. Chaguahuarquis (July) – Month in which he carried out the distribution of land, and preparation for planting. Yapaquis (August) – Planting month. A Quipu was an ancient accounting tool that Incas used Coyarraimi (September) – Feast in for bookkeeping. Quipu word comes from quechua language [written as khipu] and it means knot. Quecha honor of the Coya (queen), and to is the spoken language of the Incas. expel evil spirits and disease. For SLSU use only Page 62 of 81 fl fi fi fi  GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE The quipu consists of strings which were knotted to represent numbers. A number was represented by knots in the string, using a positional base 10 representation. In a canonical numerical quipu, each pendent (or subsidiary) displays a number: The figure-eight knot on the end was used to denote the a positive integer, expressed in decimal integer “one.” Every other integer from 2 to 9 was notation, as follows: represented with a long knot, shown on the