Geol 40310 Lecture D1: Carbon Sequestration 1 PDF

Geol 40310 Fossil Fuels and Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS) Lecture D1: Carbon Sequestration 1: Autumn 2022 T. Manzocchi 1 1 Carbon Sequestration 1 Introduction to CCS CCS as part of the future energy system Marine Sequestration Dissolution-type Lake-type Mineral sequestration Sub-surface mineral...

Geol 40310 Fossil Fuels and Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS) Lecture D1: Carbon Sequestration 1: Autumn 2022 T. Manzocchi 1 1 Carbon Sequestration 1 Introduction to CCS CCS as part of the future energy system Marine Sequestration Dissolution-type Lake-type Mineral sequestration Sub-surface mineralisation Surface mineralisation CO2 sequestration volumes and costs 2 2 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 1 Atmospheric CO2 concentrations for the last 800,000 years 3 Temperature, Atmospheric CO2 levels, and Fossil-fuel related CO2 emissions Duda et al. 2016 4 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 2 UN Sustainable development Goal 7 • By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency Global energy mix: 1850 - 2050 Share of world energy (%) 2015 Tonnes of oil equivalent per $,000 of GDP • Global energy Efficiency: 1850 - 2050 2015 (Trend is Inflation-adjusted to 2009 prices) Renewables Projection: IEA Net Zero Scenario Source of historical data: The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2018 Source of historical data : The Economist 2011 5 Global energy supply 2000-2050: IEA Net Zero Scenario 2020: > 80 % fossil fuels 2050: < 25 % fossil fuels • Net‐Zero Emissions Scenario (NZE). Net missions fall by 100% to 2050. Temperatures rise of ca. 1.5 °C in 2100 without an overshoot “Net Zero by 2050”, IEA, July 2021 6 6 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 3 Energy-related CO2 emissions 2010-2050: IEA Net Zero Scenario Net-zero means that negative emissions compensate for the remaining positive emissions “Net Zero by 2050”, IEA, July 2021 7 7 CO2 emission reduction from 2020, IEA Net Zero Scenario Efficiency Electrification Renewables Carbon Capture and Storage CCS contibutes about 15% of total CO2 emissions reduction in this scenario “Net Zero by 2050”, IEA, July 2021 8 8 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 4 CO2 capture 2010-2050: IEA Net Zero Scenario * * * Negative emissions technology “Net Zero by 2050”, IEA, July 2021 9 9 Comparison of Energy Systems in 2050: IEA net-zero scenario and 18 other net-zero scenarios considered by the IPCC (2018) Share of wind and solar in electricity generation Amount of bioenergy used in total energy system “Net Zero by 2050”, IEA, July 2021 Amount of hydrogen used in total energy system Amount of CO2 captured and stored across the total energy system: 5 – 17 Gt CO2 / year 10 10 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 5 CCS associated with fossil fuels and bioenergy Fossil fuel consumption: Positive CO2 emissions Bioenergy: ~ CO2 Emissions neutral +CCS +CCS Fossil fuel consumption with CCS: ~ CO2 Emissions neutral Bioenergy with CCS: Negative CO2 emissions Smith et al. (2016), Nature Climate Change, DOI: 10.1038/NCLIMATE2870 11 11 CCS: Carbon Capture and Storage CCUS: Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage International energy Agency, Special Report on Carbon Capture Utilisation and Storage 2020 12 12 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 6 Global cumulative CO2 captured in the Sustainable Development Scenario, 2020 – 2070. Used or stored? By Sector By Source (e.g cement) International energy Agency, Special Report on Carbon Capture Utilisation and Storage 2020 13 Global CO2 capture capacity by Sector, 1980 - 2020 • In the last decade, CCS has diversified by sector, and increased by a factor of 3. • To satisfy net zero scenarios, CCS must ramp up by a factor of ca. 200 by 2050: from 40 million tonnes in 2020, to between 5000-17,000 million tonnes in 2050 International energy Agency, Special Report on Carbon Capture Utilisation and Storage 2020 14 14 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 7 CCS Natural gas processing example: Snøhvit • • • • Barents Sea gas reservoir containing ca. 6% CO2 started production in 2008. CCS integral to the initial development plan which exports the gas as LNG. Sub-sea completion, with separate gas and CO2 pipelines. Ca. 0.5 Mt CO2 /year sequestered initially into fluival units below the main reservoir, but later into the better quality overlying Stø formation. 15 15 CCS: Power generation example: Boundary Dam • • • • • Boundary Dam was first commercial post combustion CO2 capture project for a coalfired electrical generating station. it became operational in late 2014 in Canada. SaskPower’s Boundary Dam Unit #3 is a 50year old coal-fired generating unit retrofitted with CCS technology at a cost $1.35 billion Canadian ($1.2 billion U.S.). This is 3 times as much as building a similar-sized plant from scratch without CCS. The retrofitted plant is less efficient than a conventional coal plant. It is rated at 110 megawatts compared to 139 megawatts before the retrofit–a reduction of around 20%. In other words, the CCS technology itself uses about 20% of the energy produced by the plant while capturing 90% of the CO2 The project reduces greenhouse gas emissions by about 1 MtCO2 a year. The captured CO2 is partly sold to an EOR project, and partly injected into a saline aquifer 16 16 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 8 Maturity of CCS system components (2005) e.g. Snøhvit e.g. Boundary Dam 17 IPCC Special Report on CCS (2005) 17 CO2 storage Options (IPCC Report, 2005): Ocean Storage • Dissolution type • Lake type Mineral carbonation • Subsurface mineralisation • Surface waste materials, soils Geological storage • Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) • Depleted oil/gas fields • Unminable coal seams • Saline aquifers 18 18 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 9 Supercritical fluid Solid Pressure (psi) CO2 Temperature / Pressure Phase diagram Liquid CO2 specific gravity Critical Point Triple point Gas Dublin, November (10 °C, 14.7 psi) Temperature (°C) 19 Behaviour of CO2 in water Will the CO2 float, sink, dissolve or react to form a solid hydrate? • Typically, CO2 is a gas above ca. 500m water depth and a liquid below it. • Above ca 2700m, liquid CO2 is less dense than water and below it, it is denser. • In colder water, a solid CO2 hydrate will form: this is denser than water and so will sink. • The dissolution rate of CO2 in sea water is variable and depends on the form (gas, liquid, hydrate), the depth and temperature of disposal, and the local water velocities. • CO2 saturated water is denser than non-saturated water and will sink. Black lines: Pressure-temperature phase transitions of CO2 in salt water. 500 1500 2000 Depth (m) 1000 Coloured lines: Temperature of sea water Density of CO2 Density of sea water 2500 Chow (2014) 20 20 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 10 Marine Sequestration • • In ‘dissolution type’ storage a mobile plume of CO2 dissolves rapidly in the ocean water. In ‘lake type’ storage the CO2 is initially a liquid on the sea floor but may solidify as a CO2 hydrate. IPCC Special Report on CCS (2005) 21 21 Marine Sequestration Oceans and Atmosphere are part of the same carbon cycle and therefore marine sequestration cannot be a long-term solution. Sequestration period Simulated atmospheric CO2 concentration resulting from CO2 release to the atmosphere or injection into the ocean at 3,000 m depth, assuming cumulative emissions of 18,000 GtCO2 at a tapering rate over a 200 year period. • Ocean storage has not been deployed or thoroughly tested, and would be very detrimental to marine life. • Since 2007, international policies have prohibited direct discharge of CO2 into the ocean 22 IPCC Special Report on CCS (2005) 22 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 11 CO2 storage Options (IPCC Report, 2005): Ocean Storage • Dissolution type • Lake type Mineral carbonation • Subsurface mineralisation • Surface waste materials, soils Geological storage • Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) • Depleted oil/gas fields • Unminable coal seams • Saline aquifers 23 23 Mineral sequestration • Chemical conversion of CO2 to solid stable inorganic carbonates • Exothermic at standard conditions • Bring high concentration of CO2 into contact with alkaline and alkaline-earth oxides, such as magnesium oxide (MgO) and calcium oxide (CaO). • Suitable materials are abundant silicate rocks (containing, for example, serpentine and olivine). These oxides are also present in small quantities in some industrial wastes, such as stainless steel slags and ashes. • Carbonation can be carried out either sub-surface, by injecting CO2–saturated water into silicate rich geological formations or into alkaline aquifers, or at surface in a chemical plant. 24 24 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 12 Natural mineral CO2 sequestration – Formation of travertine • Olivine and serpentine occur in large quantities in the Earth’s mantle, and are found close to surface in orogenic collision mountain belts as ophiolites • Weathering is a process of natural carbonation of ophiolites using atmospheric CO2. The process occurs very slowly. Travertine (CaCO3 ) formed from the Samail ophiolite in Oman. 25 25 Classification of Igneous Rocks: Grain size and composition Marshak 2015 26 26 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 13 Global distribution of mafic and ultramafic rocks Prospective sedimentary basins Mafic formations (e.g. basalts) Ultramafic formations (e.g. peridotites) Kelemen et al (2019), Frontiers in climate doi: 10.3389/fclim.2019.00009 27 Mineral sequestration Mineral dissolution rates, and hence the formation of new carbonate minerals, is much more efficient at higher temperature and in ultramafic and ophiolitic rocks Alteration products of peridotite common in ophiolites Olivine: Ultramafic mineral in peridotite Olivine + plagioclase: constituents of basalt (mafic rock) Kelemen et al (2019), Frontiers in climate doi: 10.3389/fclim.2019.00009 28 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 14 The CarbFix experiment, Iceland. • Phase I (started 2007): - 200 tonnes CO2 injected into basalt at 500m depth. - 95% mineralized as carbonates within two years. • Phase II (started 2014): 12,000 tonnes CO2 /year injected with enough water to dissolve the CO2 completely at injection depth (1500m) • 2017: Installation of pilot heat-powered direct air capture (DAC) system with capacity to capture about 50 tons of CO2 annually. • 2020: Project taken over for scale-up by Reykjavik Energy 29 29 CCUS in geothermal power-plants Hellisheidi: • Scale-up of CarbFix project • 12,000 tonnes/year of captured CO2 injected with circulating geothermal fluids. • The CO2 provides pressure support to the flow system, and some becomes permanently sequestered by reaction with the basalt Kızıldere: • Geothermal fluid contains ca. 3% CO2 which till now has been vented to atmosphere. • Plans to re-inject the CO2 in a supercritical phase for pressure support. • Potential role for CO2 sequestration role in this metamorphosed limestone Hellisheidi geothermal power plant, Iceland, Reykjavik Energy Fractured basalt Kızıldere-III geothermal power plant, Turkey, Zorlu Enerji Fractured metamorphosed limestone30 Stork et al. (2020) 30 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 15 Surface Mineral sequestration in mine tailings Tailings of Black Lake Mine, Thetford Mines, Quebec, Canada • • • Global mining produces ca 100 Mt of this waste per year. Monitoring shows that this 110 Mt ultramafic mine tailing site is sequestering ca. 100 tonnes of CO2/Year and a total capacity of 3 Mt. It would take 30,000 year to reach capacity. 31 Nowamooz et al. (2018) Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52, 14, 8050–8057 31 Sub-surface and surface mineralisation rates • Ground rock or volcanic ash in soil has very low reaction rates. • Mine tailings at surface have similar reaction rates to CO2-saturated fluid through basalts (e.g. Carbfix). • CO2 saturated fluid through peridotites at depth would react 10,000 x faster. Sub-Surface Surface Kelemen et al (2019), Frontiers in climate 32 doi: 10.3389/fclim.2019.00009 32 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 16 CO2 mineral sequestration: methods, volumes, costs Surface mineralisation mine tailings Surface mineralisation of natural rocks Sub-surface mineralisation: injection of CO2 saturated fluids into mafic & ultramafic rocks Sub-surface mineralisation: injection of air saturated fluids into peridotite Sub-surface mineralisation: injection of supercritical CO2 into sedimentary rocks Industrial waste 33 Kelemen et al (2019), Frontiers in climate doi: 10.3389/fclim.2019.00009 33 Maturity of CCS system components (2005 - 2020) STOP! 34 IPCC Special Report on CCS (2005) 34 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 17 Comparative CO2 sequestration volumes Geological storage: Snøhvit gas processing example: Boundary Dam power generation example: 0.5 Mt CO2 /year 1 Mt CO2 /year Mineral sequestration: Hellisheidi subsurface mineralisation example: Black Lake Mine surface mine tailing example: 12 Kt CO2 /year (0.012 Mt/year) 100 t CO2 /year (0.00001 Mt/year) Total CO2 sequestered 2021: Requirement 2050 (IEA net-zero scenario): 43 Mt CO2 /year 7.5 Gt CO2 /year (7,500 Mt /year) 35 CO2 emission reduction from 2020, IEA Net Zero Scenario Low emission fuels CCS contibutes about 15% of total CO2 emissions reduction in this scenario “Net Zero by 2050”, IEA, July 2021 36 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 18 Extra revenue by oil and gas producers in 2022 relative to 2021 is enough to finance to 2030 the low emission fuel investment required by the net zero scenario Net income from global oil and gas: 2022 minus 2021 Cumulative investment in low emissions fuels and CCUS 2022-2030, Net Zero Scenario (Required investment in CCS is far smaller than the required investment in hydrogen, despite similar net effects on emission reductions) “World Energy Investment 2022”, IEA, June 2022 37 Accelerating implementation of low CO2 fuel technologies Capacity of electrolysers for hydrogen production, by intended use Hydrogen production capacity, 2010-2022 CO2 capture capacity, 2010-2022 “World Energy Investment 2022”, IEA, June 2022 38 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 19 Carbon pricing incentives Emissions trading schemes Carbon taxes • Incentives cover ca. 23% of total global CO2 emissions in 2023 • Ireland: EU ETS plus carbon tax of €48.5 per tonne of carbon emitted. Source: The World bank: https://carbonpricingdashboard.worldbank.org/ 39 European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) Established in 2005 as part of the implementation of the Kyoto protocol. “Cap and trade” system : A cap is set to the allowed emissions per installation – This get smaller year-on-year. Emission allowances can be traded. The price of carbon is determined by the market. 40 € 82.51 as of 26th Sept 2023 Euro / tonne of CO2 Sharp carbon price increase in 2021-22 driven by: € 70.22 as of • Reforms in 2018 resulting in more rapid decreases in annual allowances. 22nd Sept 2022 • High cost of gas leading to a greater use of coal. € 23.82 as of 31st Jan 2020 https://sandbag.org.uk/carbon-priceviewer/ Borghesi & Montini (2016) 40 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 20 Future emissions prices for different energy and climate scenarios Current EU ETS price Rogelj et al. (2018). Mitigation Pathways Compatible with 1.5°C in the Context of Sustainable Development. IPCC Special report. 41 CO2 storage Options (IPCC Report, 2005): Ocean Storage • Dissolution type • Lake type Mineral carbonation • Subsurface mineralisation • Surface waste materials, soils Geological storage • Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) • Depleted oil/gas fields • Unminable coal seams • Saline aquifers Next two lectures 42 42 Geol 40310 Lecture D1 21