Geography Exam PDF

Geography Exam 😱 ✮⋆˙ Notes: ​ **Headings that are not underlined are NOT AS IMPORTANT as the ones that are. Therefore, focus on the ones that are underlined and MOST LIKELY to be on th...

Geography Exam 😱 ✮⋆˙ Notes: ​ **Headings that are not underlined are NOT AS IMPORTANT as the ones that are. Therefore, focus on the ones that are underlined and MOST LIKELY to be on the exam** ​ Starred concepts are ones that are unfamiliar with ○​ ⭐ → yiran’s unfamiliar concepts ○​ 💫→ kelly’s unfamiliar concepts Unit 1 - Geographic Methods/Skills 💫Compass ​ Rules: 1.​ Measured from North 2.​ In a **clockwise** direction 3.​ Written as 3 figures ​ Cardinal points: North, south, east and west ​ Ordinal points: other 12 points (NE, SSE, SW, etc) ​ Compass bearing: number ​ Compass point: direction ○​ Example: the bearing is 90 but the point is east ​ If the question says ‘Y from X,’ you are going from point X to Y (leaving x and traveling to y) ​ All the compass bearings go by at 22.5º (example: during a test go up by 22.5º 16 times ​ **always start with N/S and then E/W when writing coordinates** ​ ○​ 💫 → its 240º because its measured CLOCKWISE Contour Lines ​ Contour Lines are lines drawn on a topographic map to show either a ground elevation or depression. These lines connect points of equal elevation above the average/mean sea level and can display relief features in 3D perspective. ​ 💫Time Zones ​ **study winter time zones**  PST (Pacific) 12:00 pm (GMT - 8) MST (Mountain) 1:00 pm (GMT - 7) CST (Central) 2:00 pm (GMT - 6) EST (Eastern) 3:00 pm (GMT - 5) AST (Atlantic 4:00 pm (GMT - 4) NST (Newfoundland) 4:30 pm (GMT - 3.5) Poor Men Can’t Eat Any Nachos Backstory ​ St. Sandford fleming came up with time zones ​ With the development of the railway, in the 1850’s, the need for standard time zones became needed. ​ Sir Sandford Fleming wrote to the major governments of the world proposing the use of time zones. ​ In 1884, an international conference was held to approve Fleming’s system International Date Line: 180º ​ This line runs through the Pacific Ocean ​ Separates one day from another ​ Runs from the North Pole to the South Pole ​ Zigzags through the Pacific, to avoid dividing land masses or island groups that belong to the 💫Mapping Requirements same country. ​ We probably dont have to know the specifics so just memorize requirements, specifically SCALE Title ​ Should be within the map frame or border ​ Should be at the TOP of the map ​ Should be UNDERLINED or BOXED ​ Should include: what, where, when Date of Publication ​ Indicate when the map was produced ​ Indicate who produced the map Border ​ Must be around the entire map ​ Must be of equal proportions All title, legend, & labeling must be within the border Direction ​ All maps MUST have a direction arrow ​ North should always be at the top of the page ​ Use a ruler Legend ​ All maps MUST have a legend  ​ Place a BORDER around the legend information ​ All legends must have an UNDERLINED TITLE ​ Direction and scale can be included in the legend Scale ​ Provide a scale: ○​ Linear ​ Ex: ○​ Statement ​ Ex: 1 cm rep 1 km ○​ Representative fraction ​ Ex: 1: 100 000 cm Canada Map Capital Cities 1.​ British Columbia → Victoria 2.​ Alberta → Calgary 3.​ Sakatchewan → Regina 4.​ Manitoba → Winnipeg 5.​ Ontario → Toronto 6.​ Quebec → Quebec City 7.​ Nova Scotia → Halifax 8.​ New Brunswick → Fredericton 9.​ Prince Edward Island → Charlottetown 10.​ Newfoundland and Labrador → St. Johns 11.​ Yukon → Whitehorse 12.​ Northwest Territories → Yellowknife 13.​ Nunavut → Iqaluit Rivers Lakes Bays Oceans ​ Mackenzie River ​ Great Slave Lake ​ Hudson Bay ​ Arctic Ocean  ​ Great Bear Lake ○​ You know this 🤨 ​ Pacific Ocean ​ James Bay ​ Atlantic Ocean Great Lakes: ​ H - Lake Huron ​ O - Lake Ottawa ​ St. Laurence River ​ M - Lake Michigan ​ E - Lake Erie (under hudson bay, between ​ S - Lake Superior ontario and quebec) (SMHEO from right to left) SMH, EO (Shake my head, everyone.) (is that too far of a stretch) Other Key Terms (not said on outline but it wouldn’t hurt) Latitude - horizontal lines used to measure distances north or south of the equator.  Tropic, midlatitude, permafrost Tropic of Cancer Located at approximately 23.4 degrees north from the equator. The sun is directly overhead the tropic of CDancer during the summer (june) solstice, or when the northern hemisphere is rotated to the sun to its maximum extent. Tropic of Capricorn Located at approximately 23.4 degrees south from the equator. The sun is directly overhead the tropic of Capricorn during the winter (december) solstice, or when the southern hemisphere is rotated to the sun to its maximum extent. GIS - Global Information System; used to record information on maps GPS - Global Positioning System; used to find the absolute/exact location of things Unit 2 - Physical Geography Geologic Timeline Era Time (Years before Significant Geological Significant Biological present) Events Events Cenozoic 60 million years - ​ Ice sheets ​ Humans present covered North dominated America (Ice ​ Age of Age) Mammals ​ Continents ​ Modern Forms of take on their Life Evolve present shape ​ Complete formation of  Rocky Mountains Mesozoic 230 million years - 65 ​ Rocky ​ Age of reptiles million years Mountains (dinosaurs) Formed ​ First birds and ​ Innuitian mammals Mountains ​ First flowering Formed plants ​ Shallow seas in the interior of North America Paleozoic 600 million years - 230 ​ Periods when ​ Age of million years large parts of amphibians, North America fish, and insects are created ​ Large swamps and the ​ Coal formed emergence of from vegetation shallow seas ​ First plants and ​ The animals Appalachian Mountains formed Precambria 4.6 billion years - 600 ​ Precambrian ​ The planet is still n million years shields: forming and Canadian settling Shield, ​ The first single Brazilian and multi-celled Shield, African organisms Shield, evolve Australian Shield Continental Drift Continental Drift is the concept that the Earth’s continents were once part of a large supercontinent and had split apart and arrived at their present destinations. ​ Not that important: ○​ In 1915, German Scientist Alfred Wegener came up with a radical theory that suggested the theory of “Continental Drift.” He believed that 300 million years ago, all of Earth’s land masses collided to form one land mass he called Pangea(meaning “all land”) ○​ Approximately 200 million years ago, Pangaea broke into pieces, slowly drifting to the positions of the continents today. The four pieces of evidence (NOT THAT IMPORTANT) 1.​ The Apparent fit of the continents the coastline of the continents (like Africa and South America) appear to fit together like pieces of a puzzle. 2.​ Fossil Correlation Identitcal Fossils of plants and animals were found on different continents E.g. the Mesosaurus, a reptile which lived in fresh waters - it could not have traveled across the sea. 3.​ Rock and Mountain Correlation ​ There are mountains and rocks of similar age and structure on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean ​ E.g. The Appalachians (eastern US and Canada) and the Caledonian Mountains in Northern British Isles and Europe  4.​ Paleo Climate Data ​ When glaciers move across rocks, they leave glacial scratches. They were found in Africa or South America, suggesting that these contientns were once near the South Pole ​ Bituminous Coal, a fossi fuel made from compacted tropical plant remains have been found on all continents, which is evidence of past tropical climate ​ Coal has been found in cold regions and Glacial evidence has been found in warm regions Plate Tectonics Tectonic plates are made of rigid lithosphere. The lithosphere is made up of the crust and the upper part of Earth’s mantle. “Plates” of the lithosphere are moved around by the underlying hot mantle convection currents. Three types of plate boundaries: Divergent Boundaries Signifies ridges like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. When two plates diverge, the crust opens up, and magma rushes upwards from the mantle, forming a new crust.  Example: Iceland, which is being pulled apart by convention currents in the Earth’s mantle. Convection currents in the mantle push magma upwards along the ridge. As the magma rises, it pushes the plates apart and cools to form a new oceanic crust. Convergent Boundaries Formed if two tectonic plates collide. Usually, the converging plate that is more dense will move beneath the other plate that is more buoyant, a process known as subduction. Example: The Himalayan mountain range and Tibetan plateau have formed as a result of the collision between the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate which began 50 million years ago and continues today. Three Subtypes of Convergent Boundaries: Continental-Continental Collision Two continental plates collide and force each other upwards due to the balance in density and the lack of subduction. As the plates collide, they crumple and form mountains. I.e. European Alps, Himalayas. Oceanic-Continental Collision This process results in the subduction of the oceanic plate underneath the continental lithosphere. The oceanic lithosphere heats and dehydrates as it subsides, and the molten magma rises and creates large amounts of volcanism and seismic activity. Oceanic-Oceanic Collision When two oceanic plates collide, one runs over the other, which causes it to sink into the mantle, forming a subduction zone. The subduction plate is bent downward to form a very deep depression on the ocean floor called a trench. The world’s deepest parts of the ocean are found along trenches. An example of this is the Mariana Trench, which is approximately 11 km deep. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Transform Boundaries Occurs when plates slide past each other and lock, which creates enormous pressure and catastrophic earthquakes due to the release of pressure. The lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed. Instead, blocks of crust are torn apart in a broad zone of shearing between the two plates. Example: Point Reyes National Seashore, California’s Tomales Bay, is the surface expression of the San Andreas fault. What are Hotspot Volcanoes? (NOT IMPORTANT; DONT FOCUS ON IT) ​ An area of the Earth's mantle from which hot plumes rise upward, forming volcanoes on the overlying crust ​ A hot spot is a volcanic region where a plume of hot, buoyant material (typically rock) rises from the Earth’s mantle towards the Earth’s crust ○​ This welling of magma is called a mantle plume. ○​ As this hot material reaches the crustit melts and accumulates magma in large chambers beneath the Earth’s surface. ​ The magma generated from hotspots can lead to volcanic eruptions, with the type of eruption and volcanic activity depending on the composition of the magma ​ Hotspots can occur in both oceanic and continental settings and do not have to be located at tectonic plate boundaries. How do Earthquakes and Volcanoes Form? (NOT IMPORTANT; DONT FOCUS ON IT)  ​ Plates rip apart at a divergent plate boundary, causing volcanic activity and shallow earthquakes. ​ At a convergent plate boundary, one plate dives or “subducts” beneath the other, resulting in a variety of earthquakes and a line of volcanoes on the overriding plate. ​ The Ring of Fire is a string of volcanoes and sites of seismic activity, or earthquakes, around the edges of the Pacific Ocean. ○​ Roughly 90 percent of all earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire, and the ring is dotted with 75 percent of all active volcanoes on Earth. ○​ The Ring of Fire is the result of plate tectonics. Tectonic plates are huge slabs of Earth’s crust which fit together like pieces of a puzzle. The plates are not fixed but are constantly moving atop a layer of solid and molten rock called the mantle. ○​ Sometimes, these plates collide, move apart, or slide next to each other. Most tectonic activity in the Ring of Fire occurs in these geologically active zones. The Rock Cycle The Rock Cycle is a natural process that will continue to transform and recycle old rocks. Rock Type Formation Texture and Composition Examples Sedimentary ​ Sedimentary rocks are ​ Sedimentary rock is fairly ​ Conglomerate formed from particles of soft and may break apart ​ Coal sand, shells, pebbles, and or crumble easily. ​ Chalk other fragments of ​ You can often see sand, ​ Gypsum material. pebbles, or stones in the ​ Shale ​ Together, all these rock ​ Sandstone particles are called ​ It is usually the only type ​ Limestone. sediment. that contains fossils  ​ Gradually, the sediment accumulates in layers and, over a long period of time, hardens into rock. Metamorphic ​ Metamorphic rocks are ​ The rocks that result from ​ Granite formed under the surface these processes often ​ Basalt of the earth from the have ribbonlike layers and ​ Pumice metamorphosis (change) may have shiny crystals ​ Obsidian that occurs due to intense formed by minerals ​ Rhyolite heat and pressure growing slowly over time ​ Andesite (squeezing on their surface. ​ Diorite ​ Gabbro ​ Scoria Igneous ​ Igneous rocks are formed ​ When lava cools very ​ Slate when magma (molten quickly, it does not allow ​ Marble rock deep within the earth) for the formation of ​ Gneiss cools and hardens. crystals, which results in a ​ Schist Sometimes, the magma shiny and glasslike ​ Quartzite cools inside the earth, and igneous rock. ​ Phyllite other times, it erupts onto ​ Sometimes, gas bubbles ​ Hornfels the surface from are trapped in the rock volcanoes (in this case, it during the cooling is called lava). process, leaving tiny holes and spaces in the rock. Landform Regions of Canada A Landform Region is an area of the Earth with a unique set of physical features.  Where is it located? Geologic history (era, Economy (what type of rock types) industry/ resources?) Canadian Shield The Canadian Shield ​ composed of ​ Sparsely populated covers more than half ancient rock ​ Poor farming due of Canada ​ relatively flat, with to thin soil rounded hillsroots ​ Rock contains of ancient large quantities of mountains. valuable metallic ​ Canadian Shield is minerals like lead, the OLDEST gold, nicke landform ​ ideal for recreation ​ Was the due to its scenic geological waterfalls, lakes, foundation of rock formations, Canada and vast forests. ​ Rich in minerals Western Cordillera Located along the ​ many ranges of ​ Herbs, lichens, and western edge of high, sharp peaks shrubs can be Canada and mountains found at higher separated by elevations in this plateaus and region valleys that run ​ various types of North to South coniferous forests  ​ created recently and grasslands are by the collision of found at lower the North elevations American and ​ The area is lightly Pacific plates populated and ​ has not gone difficult to travel in through much but rich in erosion minerals, timber, and sources of hydroelectricity. Appalachians The Appalachians ​ Oldest highland ​ Distinguished by cover some of region in Canada their wealth of Southern Quebec and and was created large hardwood most of the Atlantic when the North trees. Provinces. American plate ​ Long ocean bays collided with lie in this region, Europe and Africa providing deep about 300 million harbours for ocean years ago freighters. ​ Over time, erosion ​ Sedimentary rock has rounded the is rich in mountains, non-metallic transforming the materials such as region into a coal, and igneous landscape of and metamorphic rolling mountains rocks with metallic and hills. minerals such as iron and zinc are abundant. Innuitians The Innuitians are a This land was shaped The Innuitians are at a landform region rather recently when the high altitude above the located in Canada’s North American Plate tree line, which prevents Arctic territories of moved northwards, so any vegetation from Nunavut and the erosion has not yet existing. The area is Northwest Territories. rounded the mountains largely unexplored due to significantly. In some the hostile climate, so the locations, the mountains natural resources in the measure over 2,500 area have not been meters in height and 1290 examined. km in length, Interior Plains The interior plains This land, founded on The Interior Plains hosts a extend through the sedimentary rock, is booming farming industry middle of Canada described as very flat, that farms wheat and from North to South, with deep, fertile soil cattle, so much so that it is covering most of that’s suitable for known as Canada’s Alberta and farming. “Bread Basket.” Saskatchewan and The southern part of the Approximately thirty interior plains is mostly million metric tons of  some of NWT and devoid of trees and wheat are produced in Manitoba. covered in grasses and Canada’s breadbasket herbs, while the northern every year. Hay, Oats, part is home to a belt of Barley, Rye, Canola, and coniferous trees called many other crops are the boreal forest, which grown on Interior Plains extends from the Rocky lands. Mountains to The sedimentary rock in Newfoundland. the area contains rich minerals, coal, oil, and gas deposits, which supports a mining industry. Great Lakes – St. This landform region is In earlier times, the Great This region houses 50% of Lawrence Lowlands located South of the Lakes - St. Lawrence Canada’s population and Canadian Shield in region was home to large 70% of Canada’s Ontario and Quebec. It mixed forests before it manufacturing industries. is also the smallest was subject to heavy It also contains an landform region in farming and urban abundance of fertile soils Canada. sprawl due to its massive and a warm climate population potential. suitable for a flourishing farming industry. Hudson Bay - Arctic The Husdon Bay and This area is characterized The Arctic Lowlands to the Lowlands Arctic Lowlands by low-lying, barren North are mostly include a series of islands with coastlines composed of permafrost, islands located in ranging from extensive making agriculture Canada’s far north lowlands to magnificent impossible and and the area around cliffs. The ground is construction difficult and the Southwestern composed of hazardous. shore of the Hudson sedimentary rock resting Bay and James Bay in on top of the underlying Ontario and Quebec. Canadian shield, and the lowlands are dotted with ponds, lakes, and streams. Climate Factors affecting climate ​ The closer to the equator one is, they will receive more direct, L – latitude compacted sunlight ○​ Resulting in higher temperatures ​ The further away from the equator rone is, the less direct sunlight they will receive (spread out sunlight) ​ Oceans currents moving away from the equaotr are warmer O - ocean currents than the surrounding water ​ Ocean currents moving towards the equator are colder than the surrounding water  ​ Air masses are large volumes of air that take on the W - wind, air masses, jet streams climactic conditions of the area it forms ​ Air masses move depending on the particular weather patterns existing at any time ​ Air moves from areas of higher air pressure to areasof lower air pressure ○​ Due to the earth’s well established pattern of low + high pressure areas, WIND BELTS are created ​ Low pressure = cloudy, rainy, moist ​ High pressure = dry, clear skies ​ Higher elevations = colder temperatures E - elevation ​ When air rises, pressure decreases. The air then expands and cools. ○​ Condensation usually occurs, giving off heat, making cooling slower. ○​ If there is no condensation occurring the air will cool faster ​ Relief = the shape of the surface of the land R - relief ​ Places on the side of the land facing the wind (windward) gets more rain and snow than places on the leeward side, which have a rain shadow effect ​ Places close to the water have a MARITIME climate N - near water ​ Places more inland have a CONTINENTAL climate Continental Maritime ​ Land heats/cools more ​ Winter are mild and quickly tan water, so summers are not too hot continental climates ○​ Smaller annual bring more extreme temp range temperatures ○​ The water ○​ Wider annual regulates the temp range temperature ​ Dry; low precipitation ​ High precipitation; moist conditions Areas near the great lakes, for example, have a semi continental climate: ○​ This means that the area is far enough from the ocean to be continental, but the lakes or some other body of water somewhat moderate temperature as long as they aren’t frozen over Climate Graph A climate graph displays yearly temperature and precipitation statistics for a particular location. Temperature (degrees celcius) is measured using the numbers on the left hand side of the chart. The average temperature for each month is plotted on the graph with a red dot and the dots are then connected in a smooth, red line. Precipitation (mm) is measured using the numbers on the right hand side of the chart. The average rainfall for each month is plotted on the graph with a blue bar. E.g. Minimum Temperature (– 7°C) Maximum Temperature (20°C) Temperature Range = Max – Min = 20 – (-7) = 27° Annual Precipitation Annual Temperature Average Continental: > 25 degrees Celsius Continental: