Geo Term Test 2 PDF

Geo Term Test 2 A) Ice in the far south Target in 2015 +1.5c degree target in pre-industrial >>> The pace of warming is accelerating, in 2023 we just crossed that mark. Quiz watch documentaries and read readings. v RECALL from the last unit: Positive Feedbacks. - Cooling Periods: Glaci...

Geo Term Test 2 A) Ice in the far south Target in 2015 +1.5c degree target in pre-industrial >>> The pace of warming is accelerating, in 2023 we just crossed that mark. Quiz watch documentaries and read readings. v RECALL from the last unit: Positive Feedbacks. - Cooling Periods: Glacial Advance o Decrease in Solar Radiation o More snow and ice on the ground >> increases albedo = more solar energy reflected o Decreased water vapour in atmosphere o Expanding ice and permafrost >> more methane and CO2 ‘locked away’ o Cooling ocean increases absorption is dissolved CO2 o >>> Net Result = Weakened Greenhouse effect. - Warming Periods: Interglacial o Increase in Solar Radiation o Less snow and ice >> decreases albedo = more heat absorbed by land and water o Increase GHGs in the atmosphere o Permafrost thawing + decomposition >> releases more methane and CO2 o More photosynthetic activity >> more vigorous carbon cycle o Warming ocean releases dissolved CO2 o >>> Net Result = Amplified Greenhouse effect - Lopez: Antarctica and Arctic are in trouble ‘siren landscapes’ we have established that change has been unfolding quickly since the 90s, - Cryosphere: refers to the part of the earth where permanent ice and snow are possible, the vast majority near the poles. This permanent ice is melting. Greenland is losing ice faster than Antarctica. - Ice Sheets: cover a land mass, sitting on top of a mass of land. - Ice Shelves: fixed to land but over sea. o Greenland and Antarctica: Ice Shelves usually melts somewhere and turns into streams or rivers, freezes down the coast and turns into other Ice Shelves, however, these masses of ice shelves are now breaking off and melting. o More ice shelves are increasing their instability - IPCC in the 2000s: o East Antarctica the only major land area without clear evidence of warming over the past 50 years (intensifying winds, more storms, snow, and ice)  o West Antarctica has significant warming, and major break-up events of several ice shelves. - The Antarctica colossus which is an Ice Sheet (doomsday glacier) is melting at a rapid rate dumping billions of tonnes of ice in the ocean every year and rising global sea levels. Antarctica has 90% of the world’s ice and millions of years of accumulated ice melting very quickly + rapid biological changes. - Sea ice is in decline in both the South and North poles o Annual ice expansion (not as much as in the past) in the winter o Shrinking ice (a lot more than in the past) in the other seasons (accordion effect). - South Pole Land o From September till the end of winter the ice expands (MAXIMUM) o February till the end of the summer the ice retreats/melts (MINIMUM). o However, it is progressively shrinking, whether the maximum isn’t as big or the minimum is much smaller. - Sea Ice is not key to Seal Level rises, but other positive feedback are. - Ice Sheets and Shelves are key to the sea levels rising. B) Ice in the far North - Polar bears are the great mammalian symbol/evidence of climate change, as their habitats are melting which makes it harder for them to hunt. Other species are affected but less popular. - Ice shelves collapse leads to a lot more tourism. Which leads to more of a carbon footprint in that area which makes the ice melt even faster. - The North Pole Region is about 4 times ahead of the global average temp. change. - Sea ice is also declining faster than projections and the thickness of ice has decreased. - Loss in Arctic: Lower albedo = less heat reflected, because more is absorbed. More albedo means the area is more shiny and reflective. o This is referred to the Arctic Amplification, which is the big factor in sea ice loss. o This leads to the claim is +1.5-2 Celsius really safe or is it bound to unleash positive feedbacks that are irreversible and ‘lock in’ further warming. - 2 great continental-scale glaciers o Antarctica, vast majority of it is ice o Greenland, a ‘micro-continent’ but very big, ice here is melting much faster than in Antarctica. o Greenland; Water pools on the surface of the ice sheets during the biggest daylong melt event on record. Streams and rivers that form on top of the ice sheets during spring and summer months are the main reason for the melt runoff from the ice sheet in the ocean. Greenland has a huge pool of shallow water on top of their ice sheets. This leads to the decline in sled dog population. In all times of the year whether winter or summer there has been a sharp increase in melting. o The temperature of Greenland right now is comparable to the temperature 400,000 years ago where Greenland was ice free. - With measurement with satellites and poles, scientists have totalled a loss of 28 trillion tonnes of ice from the surface of the Earth since 1994. 2  - The melting of ice is also bad for the biological health of Arctic and Antarctic waters because of hat is getting poured into these waters. - Ice is declining in other Northen Areas such as Iceland, Svalbard (Norway), Ellesmere Island (Nunavut). - Another aspect of Arctic Amplification is that the thawing of the permafrost is releasing CO2 and Methane o Tipping Point: In essence, when do average temps become too warm to stop inhibiting decomposition and thawing releases large volumes of GHGs?? - Permafrost: o Permanently frozen layer of soil, gravel, and sand, which is all bound together by ice o Contains far more carbon (~1500B tons) than atmosphere (~2x volume) § This is from ancient biomass, frozen for millennia o With thawing, communities of microbes emerge and decompose long-frozen organic matter § Some released as CO2, some as Methane (CH4 is a much more potent heat-trapping gas, per molecule, than CO2) o Permafrost line in Canada has retreated ~130km in the last 50 years o Under Permafrost + Arctic Ocean continental shelves § Billions of tons of methane hydrates >> methane essentially enclosed (by frozen water) in a crystalline cage § Greatest volume under continental shelves > is stored in Siberia § Warming land + Ocean >> threatens stability of Methane - Sea Ice melting is not key to the sea levels rising, however other Positive Feedback are. Warming of Oceans is tied to some sea-level rise. ICE SHEETS and SHELVES are key to Sea Levels Rising - Last time the Earth was 4C warmer: no ice at either pole and sea level was ~70 m higher - Along with declining albedo, another very important ramification of declining sea ice relates to the SEA ICE having the accordion effect. - With annual winter expansion of sea ice, ‘fresh’ salt-free ice crystallizes from cold salty water. o Chemical Change >> Makes surrounding upper ocean waters even saltier and denser - Residual (frozen) dense, cold, salty water >> annual ‘pulse’, acts as ‘engine’ of deep ocean circulation pressure from thermohaline forces. (e.g. change in temp. + salinity near surface) - As sea ice melts, two major processes affect the oceans circulation, driven by what are called thermohaline forces >> the interaction between temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline) in the ocean. o 1. Salt Concentration and Density Changes: when new sea ice form in winter, it crystallizes from slaty ocean water but leaves the salt behind, making the surrounding water saltier and denser. This dense, salty water sinks to the deep ocean and creates a kind of “pulse” that helps power deep ocean currents. These 3  currents are part of a global system that moves slowly but is crucial from distributing heat around the Earth. o 2. Temperature: in cold polar region, surface waters cool down and become denser, which also causes them to sink, adding to the deep ocean circulation. o Together, these thermohaline forces create an ‘engine’ that drives global ocean circulation, often referred to as the ‘global conveyer belt’. This system moves heat across the plant and has a major impact on climate, particularly through currents like the gulf stream. o However, as less sea ice forms due to warming, the pulse of dense salty water weakens, so this critical circulation could slow down. Adding to this uncertainty is the melting of Greenland's ice, which introduces fresh, less salty water into the North Atlantic. This fresh water dilutes the salty ocean water, reducing its density and its ability to sink, further weakening the ocean currents. Between 2014 and 2018, scientists observed a pocket of cold, fresh water (due to Greenland’s meltwater) in the North Atlantic, which could disrupt the entire global circulation system, including the Gulf Stream. This raises concerns about how changes in ocean circulation will affect global climate patterns, as these systems play a key role in moving heat around the planet - Gulf Stream moderating European climate - Much of the oceans volume in deep, slow-moving cycle o Surface current moving in different ways o Complex role transferring heat in Earths system - Momentous Uncertainty: What will happen as pulse weakness with declining sea ice formation? o Uncertainty compounded by Greenland Melt, Greenland meltwater into North Atlantic could affect Gulf Stream and its rile in transferring heat. - Temperature anomalies from 2014-2018, in degrees Fahrenheit. Meltwater from Greenland has created a pocket of cold, fresh water (seen in blue) in the northern Atlantic Ocean, which scientists say could disrupt global ocean circulation. D) Ice in the mid and low latitudes Cryosphere: Where permanent snow and ice is possible, vast majority near poles. Outside of poles, the rest is at high elevations Eastern Africa: 1912-2008 85% decline in ice cover, Kilimanjaro is facing serious snow departure. South America: Bolivia’s lakes drying, Chiles glacier collapsing, Argentina – Perito Moreno Glacier: Rare exception: glacier increased in mass. Uncertainty why winter accumulation of ice and snow greater than summer melt North America Glacier N.P. (Montana), in 1850 had 150 glaciers, today only 26 Asia: Mount Everest has lost a lot of snow Europe: Glaciers melting in the Alps Switzerland E) Deforestation and Fire - Big impacts from deforestation, desertification, and expanding fire seasons 4  - In the Atmosphere: Pulse of stored carbon as CO2 is increasing, so now the atmosphere has diminished/weakened its capacity for Carbon sequestration (absorption). Whoch worsens climate change and heats up the atmosphere - Tropical Rainforests: ~6% of land, ~50% of plant and animal species, sequester ~1/4 of carbon absorbed by world’s forests. Found near the equator like in the amazon and south east Asia, dense with a large variety of plants and animals. Warm, Rainy Green year round. - Amazon ‘the biodiversity capital of the world’. Has half of the worlds tropical rainforests. ~15% of worlds terrestrial plant biomass. Amazon can generate their own rainfall which helps self-sustain the biomass but not completely sustain it. - Amazonia -regional average rainfall ~2 m/yr ~ ½ is from the Atlantic Ocean via trade winds ~ ½ is ‘recycled’ from forest (i.e. evapotranspiration) Western Amazonia: up to ¾ rainfall is partly self-sustaining - Deforestation leads to less evaporation, less clouds, and less reflectivity. Also a widespread transition to pasture, monoculture, and large-scale mines in hotter and drier condition leads to a lot of fires - Nearing the point of no return in approx. 1-2 decades. - Eastern Amazonia is warming above average and drying out. - Amazon flooded its shores eliminating residential areas and 100 dead dolphins washed up to shore. Temperate Deforestation (found in regions with four distinct seasons, mix of leafy and evergreen trees) - Wildfires increasing and they are becoming more acute, wildfires have burnt twice as much land in the 2010s as in the 1970s. Wildfire season tend to be longer and worse. - Climate change is going to super charge these three big disturbances (fire, drought, insects) in the US. But much of this depends on how quickly we can tackle climate change. - Positive feedback: more wildfires>> more CO2 emissions form major carbon sink to atmosphere >> more warming - Australia both tropical and temperate forests -hot and dry conditions limiting ability to use hazard reduction burns (controlled fires lit in cooler weather to reduce the ‘fuel’ available to bushfires) o i.e. windows of safe weather are getting narrower and narrower - In 2018 Australia declared warming a current and existential national security risk. - The hotter and drier conditions are affecting the peatlands. o Northern peatlands contain ~15-20% of all terrestrial biological carbon. o Today most peatlands are small sinks of atmospheric CO2 and small to significant sources of atmospheric CH4 o Hotter and drier condition threaten sink function - The Industrial Revolution represents a shift “from burning living landscapes to burning lithic ones in the form of fossil fuels. That is the Big Burn of today, acting as a performance enhancer on all aspects of fire’s global presence. So vast is the magnitude of 5  these changes that we might rightly speak of a coming Fire Age equivalent in stature to the Ice Ages of the Pleistocene. Call it the Pyrocene.’ - Stephen Pyne F) Coral Reefs (rainforest of the ocean) - Oceans warming slower than land and have lost 14% of our coral reef life in a decade. - Extremely complex ecosystems, around o They are made from tiny animals called coral polyps, which live with huge colonies. These polyps have a special partnership with algae (zooxanthella) that live inside them. The algae use photosynthesis to make food form sunlight, and in return, they give the coral nutrient and their bright colours. o They also provide shelter and food for many different sea creatures, forming the foundation of the ocean’s food web. Coral reefs offer protection and nutrients too not only themselves but marine life, making them crucial for the health of the ocean. - Coral Bleaching: When the symbiotic relation breaks between coral polyps and algae (zooxanthellae). ((photosynthesis gives the coral its colour)) o Thermal stress (warming/cooling) or pollution > coral expel algae (dries out) > whitening effect (coral dies) o ‘Mass bleaching events’: large scale, sudden dies off o Effectively starves food web + heightened disease risk o Survivable: initially at risk, not necessary dead… once dead it destabilizes the whole food web - It is hard to avoid the conclusion that most coral in most areas will be lost [within ½ century]. We are looking at a loss which is equivalent to the tropical rain forests.’ – Rupert Ormond, University of Glasgow - Acidification: One of the biggest climate risks o Oceans biggest carbon sink > have absorbed a lot of anthropogenic CO2 emission which means oceans have reduced the extent of global warming so far. o Certainty: Additional CO2 absorbed is changing the chemistry of the ocean (increasing carbonic acid). pH= ~30% lower than pre-industrial era o Threatens: Plankton which is the basis of trophic webs o Reduces: Calcium Carbonite which is the key physiological ‘building block’ for skeletal and shell construction for a range of marine organisms (coral, oysters, clams) + too much carbonic acid >> corrosive to shells. o Uncertainties: Precisely when rising level of carbonic acid corrodes shells and there will be too few carbonite ions for shell and skeletal growth? When does rate of ocean warming drive major decline in dissolved CO2 intake? Cascading impacts, ‘runaway’ scenarios, and the complexity of targets (temps and emission, etc.) - Cascading impacts refers to the domino effect of human induced global warming. For example, an earthquake could lead to landslides, which in turn may block rivers, causing floods. Each impact leads to further consequences, creating a "cascade" of effects that can amplify the original event's impact. - The nine active climate tipping points o Amazon rainforest – Frequent droughts o Arctic Sea Ice – Reduction in areas o Atlantic Circulation – Slowing down since the 90s 6  o Boreal Forest – Fires and pests changing o Coral Reefs – Large-scale die-offs o Greenland Ice Sheets – Ice loss accelerating o Permafrost – Thawing o West Antarctica Ice Sheets – Ice loss accelerating o Wilkes Basin – East Antarctica ice loss accelerating - The UN chief insisted that leaders should not abandon key goals, including keeping global temperature rise to 1.5o C, in order to avoid the worst effects of climate change. CO2 , CH4 , N 2 O record highs in 2021 + methane (CH4 ) concentrations jumped by the highest amount in 40 years - ‘There has been a tendency to put climate change on the back burner. If we are not able to reverse the present trend, we will be doomed... This is the defining issue of our time; nobody has the right to sacrifice international action on climate change for any reason. We need to tell the truth. The truth is that the impact of climate change on several countries in the world, especially hotspots, is already devastating’ -Antonio Guterres - Threat: Cascade of positive feedbacks; These tipping elements can potentially act like a row of dominoes. Once one is pushed over, it pushes Earth towards another. It may be very difficult or impossible to stop the whole row of dominoes from tumbling over. Places on Earth will become uninhabitable if ‘Hothouse Earth’ becomes the reality.” - Johan Rockstrom - What is a ‘safe’ level of warming...when some positive feedbacks already have strong momentum at present level of warming, and some further warming is already ‘locked in’ by these changes? - Tipping Element Risks 2022: 1.1/1.2C and >2C in Arctic (1-3C moderate, 3-5C intense, >5C world ending) o The extent of further emissions in coming decades will determine how much. - Life on planet Earth is under siege. We are now in an uncharted territory. For several decades, scientists have consistently warned of a future marked by extreme climatic conditions because of escalating global temperatures caused by ongoing human activities that release harmful greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere. Unfortunately, time is up. We are seeing the manifestation of those predictions as an alarming and unprecedented succession of climate records are broken, causing profoundly distressing scenes of suffering to unfold. We are entering an unfamiliar domain regarding our climate crisis, a situation no one has ever witnessed firsthand in the history of humanity. - Some warming + sea level rise will continue even if all emission massively reduced tomorrow. Main Causes; o Momentum from positive feedbacks (less ice, lower albedo; permafrost/methane; more fires) o CO2 emitted into atmosphere ~100 years ‘residence time’ o 'Thermal lag’ of oceans: the delay between the time when a material (or environment) is exposed to heat and the time it takes for the material to reach its maximum temperature. In other words, it’s the time it takes for a substance to heat up or cool down in response to temperature changes in its surroundings. For example, during the day, the Earth's surface absorbs heat from the sun, but the highest temperatures might not occur until late afternoon, after the sun has already started to decline. Similarly, buildings with thick walls may take longer to warm 7  up or cool down because the heat takes time to penetrate or dissipate. This delayed response is what thermal lag describes. o Sluggish – warming more slowly than on land. Battery effect – capable of absorbing and releasing a much larger quantity of heat than land - Political Set that we should stay around 2c over the natural (would lock in the hot house condition) however science has shown that it is not a safe as conveyed and that we should try to get it down to 1.5C - What atmospheric CO2 ppm is needed for hope of containing warming to a safe level. ~350 - What is the atmospheric ppm today ~420 o On current course to reach ~500 by 2050 o Last time paleoclimatic record with a ~500 ppm, the average surface temps were ~5C and sea levels were ~40m higher. - Atmospheric CO2 keeps rising ~2 ppm a year - To reach the scientific target of ~350 ppm society requires a massive and fast reduction in annual CO2 emissions (sprint to net zero) - We need a half emission cut by 2030 o In short, slow action on emissions will make our large heavily impacted regions unhabitable 3) Brief intro to the 6th extinction spasm: Virtually all students of the extinction process agree that biological diversity is in the midst of its 6th great crisis, this time precipitated entirely by man - Cambrian Explosion → evidence of 5 mass extinction events (or ‘spasms’) in the span of 450 million years: ‘evolutionary reset’: large % of the species living in a given period go extinct in a relatively short period of time. - What is an extinction spasm? ‘Background rate’ very slow species evolving and dying off. ‘spasm’ large % of species die off over relatively short period. - Physiological Stress >> new temperature and moisture patterns and extremes - New dynamics + distributions of pests, disease vectors, and invasive species (most severe; amphibians) - Loss of habitats and food supplies - Polar bears hunt along the sea ice and hover around breathing holes to hunt with melting ice they can no longer hunt. - We have 10 years to save Earths biodiversity as mass extinction caused by humans takes hold. 1) Positive Feedbacks (or Tipping Elements) Positive feedbacks in the climate system are processes that amplify initial changes, potentially leading to tipping points—thresholds where small changes can lead to significant and often irreversible shifts. a) Ice in the Far South (Antarctica) 8 Antarctica holds about 90% of the world's ice. The West Antarctic Ice Sheet has experienced significant warming, leading to the breakup of ice shelves and accelerated ice loss. This melting reduces the Earth's albedo (reflectivity), causing more solar energy absorption and further warming—a positive feedback loop. The Thwaites Glacier, often dubbed the "Doomsday Glacier," is melting rapidly, contributing billions of tons of ice to the ocean annually and raising global sea levels. Reuters b) Ice in the Far North (Arctic) The Arctic is warming approximately four times faster than the global average, a phenomenon known as Arctic amplification. As sea ice melts, the darker ocean surface absorbs more heat, further accelerating warming and ice loss. This decline in albedo creates a positive feedback loop. Additionally, thawing permafrost releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas, exacerbating global warming. SciEd c) Ice and the Oceans Melting ice contributes freshwater to the oceans, affecting thermohaline circulation—a global system of ocean currents driven by temperature and salinity differences. For instance, the influx of freshwater from Greenland's ice melt into the North Atlantic can disrupt the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), potentially leading to significant climate shifts. Wired d) Ice in the Mid- and Low-Latitudes Glaciers in regions like the Andes, Himalayas, and Kilimanjaro are retreating due to warming temperatures. This loss affects local water supplies and reduces albedo, leading to increased heat absorption and further warming—a positive feedback mechanism. e) Deforestation and Fire Deforestation releases stored carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the atmosphere, reducing the planet's capacity to sequester carbon. This contributes to warming, which can increase the frequency and intensity of wildfires. These fires, in turn, release more CO₂, creating a positive feedback loop. In regions like the Amazon, deforestation and fire are pushing the rainforest toward a tipping point where it could transition from a carbon sink to a carbon source. World Wildlife Fund f) Coral Reefs Rising ocean temperatures cause coral bleaching, where corals expel the symbiotic algae that provide them with nutrients and color. This weakens the corals, leading to widespread die-offs. 9 The loss of coral reefs diminishes marine biodiversity and reduces the ocean's capacity to absorb CO₂, contributing to further warming. Smithsonian Magazine 2) Cascading Impacts, ‘Runaway’ Scenarios, and the Complexity of Targets (Temperatures & Emission Cuts) Cascading impacts occur when one change triggers a series of subsequent changes, potentially leading to 'runaway' scenarios where feedback loops drive the climate system toward a new, often less hospitable, equilibrium. For example, Arctic ice melt reduces albedo, leading to further warming and more ice melt—a self-reinforcing cycle. These interconnected feedbacks complicate efforts to set precise temperature and emission targets. While the Paris Agreement aims to limit warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, some feedbacks may have already been set in motion, making this target challenging to achieve. Rapid and substantial emission reductions are essential to mitigate these risks. Nature 3) Brief Introduction to the Sixth Extinction Spasm Earth has experienced five mass extinction events over the past 450 million years, each resulting in significant biodiversity loss. Currently, many scientists warn that a Sixth Mass Extinction is underway, driven entirely by human activities such as habitat destruction, pollution, overexploitation, and climate change. Species are disappearing at rates much higher than the natural background rate, threatening the stability of ecosystems and the services they provide to humanity. Science Daily Addressing these challenges requires immediate and sustained global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, protect and restore ecosystems, and develop adaptive strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change. Uneven Vulnerability Climate change has uneven impacts, with some regions and communities facing far greater risks due to their geography, resources, or socioeconomic conditions. a) Rising Heat, Aridity, and Agriculture As temperatures rise, extreme heat events become more frequent, leading to health risks such as heart and lung disease, and poorer sleep and pregnancy outcomes. In agriculture, reduced soil moisture and groundwater threaten crop yields, increasing desertification, especially in arid regions. South Asia, the most densely populated area, faces severe water shortages and agricultural challenges due to shortened growing seasons. Areas like the Sahel are seeing the 10 Sahara expand southward, reducing arable land and increasing food insecurity. By 2070, the entire Sahara may be uninhabitable due to intense heat. b) Declining ‘Reservoirs in the Sky’ Glaciers, especially in the Himalayas, provide critical seasonal water for nearly 2 billion people. Melting glaciers initially increase flood risks but ultimately lead to lower river levels during dry seasons, causing severe water shortages downstream. Continued glacier melt will disrupt freshwater availability, hydropower, irrigation, and ecosystems. In the Andes, communities in Bolivia and Peru are already experiencing reduced water availability due to declining glacier-fed rivers. c) Mega-Deltas, Low-Lying Coastal Areas, and Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Approximately 20% of the global population lives near coasts, many in low-lying areas vulnerable to rising sea levels and storm surges. Warmer oceans create stronger storms, exacerbating flood risks. SIDS, home to 63 million people, face imminent displacement due to sea-level rise, with high tides likely to permanently submerge some areas by 2050. Projections suggest that 300 million people in coastal regions may face annual floods by mid-century. d) Adaptation Capacity Wealthier nations have greater financial resources to adapt through infrastructure improvements, such as sea defenses and storm-resistant utilities. However, densely populated and low-income regions like Bangladesh, which faces sea-level rise and storm surges, lack the funds for effective adaptation. The Netherlands, with advanced sea defenses, contrasts sharply with Bangladesh despite similar risks, illustrating the vast inequality in adaptation capacity. As climate change intensifies, adaptation is essential but varies greatly depending on each country’s resources. 2) Uneven Contribution of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions a) Historic High-income nations like the U.S. and Europe, with just 14% of the global population, are responsible for 60% of historical emissions. Over the past century, the Global North’s industrialization has emitted vast amounts of CO₂, with countries like the U.S. and Canada continuing to have high per capita emissions. China surpassed the U.S. in total emissions in 2005, largely due to production for global markets. b) Present Today, per capita emissions remain disproportionately high in wealthy countries, while regions like Africa and South Asia emit far less. For example, Africa's per capita emissions are under 1 metric ton, whereas the U.S. and Canada each exceed 10 metric tons per capita. Even within countries, the wealthiest 10% contribute almost 50% of emissions, demonstrating stark intra- national inequalities. The uneven distribution of emissions further complicates climate negotiations, as low-income nations often face the worst impacts despite minimal contributions. 3) Climate Compensation, Refugees, and Walls 11 Climate Compensation: Wealthier countries have historically resisted liability for climate impacts, despite their outsized emissions. Climate compensation discussions include funding for "loss and damage" to assist vulnerable nations suffering from irreversible climate impacts. Industrialized nations pledged $100 billion annually to aid low-income countries, but these commitments remain unmet, with funds often directed toward mitigation rather than urgently needed adaptation. Climate Refugees: Climate refugees are people displaced due to environmental stress from climate change, such as sea-level rise, extreme weather, or water scarcity. Migration driven by climate change is often intra-regional and rural-to-urban, with estimates suggesting that at least 200 million people could be displaced by 2050. Many climate migrants face barriers to relocating, as high-income countries are increasingly strengthening borders, making safe migration difficult. What is Climate Justice (and Injustice)? Climate justice focuses on the ethical distribution of climate change's benefits and burdens, advocating for high-emission countries to be held accountable and support vulnerable communities. Climate injustice refers to the disparity between those who contribute least to climate change but suffer the most severe impacts. Justice involves ensuring that adaptation resources and compensation for loss and damage are prioritized for those most affected. 4) Inequality: Uneven Responsibility & Vulnerability What is Climate Justice (and Injustice)? Climate justice emphasizes the need for equity in climate action, recognizing that those most affected by climate impacts (often low-income countries) have historically contributed little to the problem. High-emission countries, which benefited from industrialization, bear greater responsibility to mitigate and support adaptation efforts. Climate injustice highlights how unequal emissions and vulnerabilities intersect, with poorer regions suffering more severe impacts despite minimal contributions to global warming. How are Climate Refugees Defined? Climate refugees are individuals forced to leave their homes due to environmental changes related to climate change. These changes include sea-level rise, extreme weather, water scarcity, and desertification. Although climate migration is typically multi-causal, climate change acts as a "threat multiplier," intensifying existing pressures. Climate refugees currently lack formal legal recognition under international refugee law, leaving millions without protections as climate impacts worsen. 12 13