Petrology and Rocks PDF

4. Environmental and Engineering Applications 5. Planetary Exploration Petrology and Rocks Rock Petrology...

4. Environmental and Engineering Applications 5. Planetary Exploration Petrology and Rocks Rock Petrology naturally occurring mixture of minerals Petrology Classification of Rocks scientific study of rocks, encompassing their composition, Igneous Rocks origin, formation, and transformation across geological 1. Extrusive Igneous Rocks time scales. Lava, or magma that has surfaced from integrates aspects of mineralogy, geochemistry, and below structural geology 2. Intrusive Igneous Rocks classifying rocks into three major categories: igneous, plutonic rocks, cool gradually below the sedimentary, and metamorphic surface Classification of Rocks: Sedimentary Rocks 1. Igneous Rocks: cooling and solidification of molten settles at the Earth's surface and in bodies of water magma or lava, granite and basalt. - Sediment accumulated particles that create 2. Sedimentary Rocks: accumulation of sediments, sedimentary rocks. sandstone and limestone. 3. Metamorphic Rocks: existing rocks undergo changes in Formation of Sedimentary Rocks pressure, temperature, or chemical environment, marble Erosion: picking up the sediment by water, wind, or and Schist. glaciers Transportation: moving the sediment by water, wind, or Rock Formation and Processes: glaciers. 1. Crystallization: cooling magma or lava, leading to the Deposition: depositing the sediment. formation of crystals. Compaction: buried under other sediment and are then 2. Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition: rocks are broken pushed together. down, transported, and deposited in layers. Cementation: chemically glued together when minerals 3. Metamorphism: intense pressure or heat, they change precipitate from the water they are dissolved in and fill the form without melting pore space between compressed sediment. Analyzing Rock Composition: Calcite or quartz can be found in the majority of sedimentary 1. Microscopy: thin sections of rocks rocks. 2. Chemical Analysis: determine the chemical makeup 3. Phase Diagrams: stability of different minerals Types of Sedimentary Rocks 1. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Studying Rock Textures and Structures: clasts or fragments of preexisting rocks and 1. Textures: grain size, shape, and arrangement. sediments Fine-grained rocks cool quickly, while coarse-grained 2. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks ones cool slowly. from water precipitate or when preexisting 2. Structures: layering, banding, or deformation material changes in its natural habitat. 3. Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks Underwater animals' bodies and shells Applications of Petrology: 4. Organic Sedimentary Rocks Here are five key instruments commonly used: Organic waste products, such as leaves, roots, 1. Polarizing Microscope: A specialized microscope and other plant or animal material, accumulates 2. X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectrometer: chemical and lithifies to form organic sedimentary rocks. analysis of rocks. detects and quantifies the elemental Black, soft, fossiliferous rocks that were formerly composition of a sample marshy sediments or peat beds contain carbon. 3. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): high-resolution images of rock surfaces and minerals at the micro- and Metamorphic Rocks nano-scale 4. Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS): Inductively Coupled 1. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) is used to measure result of unequal pressure is applied during trace elements and isotopic compositions in rocks recrystallisation, break or separate into peels 5. Rock Saw and Thin Section Machine: cut rock samples and thin layers and are made up of finer into thin slabs particles. 2. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rock Importance / Application of Rocks/Petrology UNEEP) they lack foliated texture, product of localized or 1. Understanding Earth's Structure and Evolution contact metamorphism. marble, quartzite, 2. Natural Resource Exploration greenstone, hornfel, and anthracite. 3. Environmental and Climate Research Rock Cycle LIMESTONE a conceptual model that describes the continuous calcium carbonate (calcite) or the double carbonate of processes of transformation between the three major calcium and magnesium (dolomite). It is commonly types of rocks composed of tiny fossils, shell fragments, and other fossilized debris 1. Igneous Rocks Transformation: Weathering and Erosion SHALE 2. Sedimentary Rocks laminated or fissile clastic sedimentary rock that Transformation: Burial and Compaction & composed of predominance of silt and clay other minerals Metamorphism , especially quartz and calcite 3. Metamorphic Rocks Transformation: Melting CONGLOMERATE rounded pebbles and sand that is usually held together Processes in the Rock Cycle (cemented) by silica, calcite, or iron oxide. Melting Cooling and Solidification BRECCIA Weathering and Erosion composed of large angular fragments Deposition, Burial, and Lithification Heat and Pressure (Metamorphism) Metamorphic Rocks Uplift: Tectonic forces can bring rocks from deep within the Earth back to the surface. QUARTZITE high pressure and temperature exposure to quartz-rich Intrusive Igneous Rocks sandstone or chert GRANITE composed primarily of quartz, feldspar, and mica. slow MARBLE cooling of magma beneath the Earth's surface high pressure and heat are applied to limestone SYENITE SLATE composed primarily of alkali feldspar with minor amounts Low-grade metamorphic rock, mudstone, shale, or of mafic minerals. It is similar to granite but contains little occasionally basalt undergoes metamorphosis in an or no quartz. environment with low pressure and temperature. Fine foliation, which breaks to leave smooth, flat DIORITE surfaces, is a characteristic of slate. intermediate in composition between granite and gabbro. composed mainly of plagioclase feldspar and mafic GNEISS minerals like biotite, hornblende, and pyroxene. high grade metamorphic rock, subjected to higher temperatures and pressures than schist. GABBRO rich in iron and magnesium. It is composed mainly of SCHIST plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and sometimes olivine. formed by the metamorphosis of mudstone / shale, or some types of igneous rock, to a higher degree than slate PEGMATITE with crystals several centimeters to meters in size, Importance of Rock in Civil Engineering usually forming from the last, water-rich fluids to 1. Aesthetic Use crystallize from a granitic magma. 2. Building Stones 3. Dimension Stones Extrusive Igneous Rocks 4. Aggregates DOLERITE (DIABASE) 5. Road Metal medium-grained igneous rock that is compositionally 6. Rails Ballast similar to basalt but with a slightly coarser texture. 7. Energy Dissipaters magma that cools quickly within the Earth's crust. 8. Site Rocks 9. Rock Material BASALT 10. Physical Properties solidification of molten lava Environmental Factors Sedimentary Rocks 1. Air quality and noise SANDSTONE 2. Biodiversity and ecosystem composed mostly of quartz sand, but it can also contain 3. Land use and landscape significant amounts of feldspar, and sometimes silt and 4. Water quality and quantity clay 5. Socio-economic and cultural 6.  Outcrops Structural Geology and Mechanics I - exposed rock formations found on the surface in places like cliffs, mountains, and volcanic areasExample: Structural Geology and Mechanics I Vasquez Rocks located in California Structural Geology Kinds of Outcrops - the study of rock formations and their deformations 1. Igneous Outcrops - examines the structures within the Earth's crust, such as - exposed sections of igneous rocks folds, faults, and fractures 2. Sedimentary Outcrops - form from the accumulation and compaction of Rock Mechanics sediments, such as sand, silt, and clay - mechanical behavior of rocks and rock masses - commonly found in areas like riverbeds, cliffs, - analyzing the strength, deformation, and stability of rocks and desert landscapes. 3. Metamorphic Outcrops Attitude of Bed - formed when pre-existing rocks are altered Attitude - orientation or position of a rock through exposure to significant heat and Layering - sediments, rock fragments, or minerals settle pressure, leading to physical and chemical and accumulate changes in their structure. Lithification - accumulated layers of sediments harden into solid rock. How Outcrops can form Bed - a single layer within a sequence of sedimentary 1. Weathering – breaking down / decomposition rocks 2. Erosion - displacement Bedding Plane - the flat surface separating one bed from 3. Human Activity - Mining / construction another in a sedimentary rock sequence. Lamination - extremely thin layers within a bed Outcrop Patterns 1. Flat-lying Beds – intersections tend to align closely with A. Strike and Dip contour lines, running parallel to them - The attitude of beds can be defined by its two 2. The Rule of V’s – where dipping surfaces are incised by key components: Strike and Dip. stream valleys or canyons, their map view will make a V 1. Strike 3. Plunging Folds – makes a zig-zag patterns that change - compass direction of the line formed by the direction at the fold hinges intersection of an inclined bedding - a scalar quantity Geologic Maps 2. Dip Geologic map - the angle at which a bedding plane is inclined - employs lines, symbols, and colors to represent - vector quantity the characteristics and distribution of rock units a. Direction of dip direction of the in a region. steepest descent b. Amount of dip angle of this slope, Components of Geologic Maps Types of Dip 1. The Map Itself 1. True Dip 2. The Map Legend - maximum angle of inclination of a bedding - the map legend or key, clarifies all the symbols plane, measured perpendicular to the strike. used on the map - represents the steepest angle 3. Geologic cross-section(s) of the map area. 2. Apparent Dip - geologic cross-section, which shows how - measured in any direction other than different rock types are layered or arranged, perpendicular including geological structures like folds and faults. B. Measuring Strike and Dip 1. Using Clinometer Compass Types of Geological Maps - used to determine the dip and strike of rock 1. Bedrock maps layers. - display the location and spread of various rock a. compass, equipped with a formations at or near the Earth's surface. counterclockwise graduated circular 2. Surficial maps dial divided into 360 degrees - display the distribution of surface materials like b. clinometer, integrated within the soils, sediments, and glacial deposits compass 3. Structural maps 2. Using Brunton Compass - illustrate the orientation and location of geologic - have both compass and clinometer functions structures like faults and folds 4. Mineral maps - display the location and distribution of various minerals and mineral resources in an area.  5. Geologic hazard maps Types of Faults - indicate the potential for natural hazards like 1. Dip-Slip Faults earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic eruptions - Fault surfaces are inclined. Motion is up or down in an area. along the fault. a. Normal Dip-Slip Faults - are produced by Study of Structures vertical compression as Earth’s crust lengthens. A. Folds b. Reverse (Thrust) Dip-Slip Faults - result from - A stack of originally planar surfaces horizontal compressional forces caused by a Folding shortening, or contraction, of Earth’s crust. - the process of development of folds in the rocks. 2. Strike-Slip Faults (also called transcurrent, wrench, or lateral) Parts of Folds - a fracture in the rocks of Earth’s crust in which Axial Plane - marks the center of the fold. the rock masses slip past one another parallel to Hinge Line - marks where the axial plane intersects the the strike surface. 3. Oblique-Slip Faults Limb - areas on either side of the curved hinge zone stick - a type of fault movement that combines both out like arms or legs. vertical and horizontal displacement Classification of Folds C. Joints Anticline Folds - up folds where the limb dip away from - A brittle-fracture surface in rocks along which the axis of fold. has an arch that looks like an “A” little or no displacement has occurred. Syncline Folds - down folds where the limb dip towards a. Joint set - is a family of parallel, evenly the axis of fold, reversed anticline shape, “sinks” spaced joints downward, which sounds like syncline. b. Joint system - consists of two or more Monocline Folds - step-like folds in rock strata intersecting joint sets. consisting of a zone of steeper dip Domes - fold is in a dome shape, like an inverted bowl. Formation of Joints Basins - fold is in the shape of a bowl sinking down into Classification of Joints the ground. 1. Spatial Relationship - basis of presence or otherwise of Symmetrical Folds - have a vertical axial plane some regularity in their occurrence: Asymmetrical Folds - have an inclined axial plane a. Systematic Joints (regular joints) - distinct Overturned Folds - have steeply dipping axial planes regularity in their occurrence Isoclinal Folds - all axial planes are essentially parallel, b. Non Systematic Joints (irregular joints) - these and limbs are dipping at equal angles. joints do not possess regularity in their Recumbent Folds - the axial plane acquires an almost occurrence and distribution horizontal attitude. 2. Geometry - basis of relationship of their attitude with that of the rocks in which they occur: B. Faults a. Strike Joints - parallel to the strike of the rocks. - a fracture or zone of fractures between two b. Dip Joints - parallel to the dip direction of the blocks of rock. rocks. Faulting c. Oblique Joints - strike of the joints is at any - occurs when enormous stresses build and push large angle between the dip and the strike of the intact rock masses beyond their yield limit. layers. 3. Genesis - depending upon the cause of their origin, joints Parts of Fault may be divided into: Fault Plane - surface that the movement has taken place a. Tension Joints - joints that have developed due within the fault. to the tensile forces acting on the rocks. Fault Scarp - the steep face of an exposed block. 1. Mural Joints - commonly show three Fault Line (Fault Trace) - the trace of the fault along the sets of joints mutually at right angles surface. 2. Sheet Joints - joints are somewhat Hanging Wall - the rock mass resting on the fault plane. curved and are essentially parallel to Foot Wall - the rock mass beneath the fault plane. the topographic surface 3. Columnar Joints - formed in tubular There are three types of stress that can affect rocks, resulting in igneous masses, prismatic joints different types of faults: 4. Mud cracks - drying of the mud 1. Tension - pulls rock apart in opposite directions. 2. Compression - stress that pushes rocks together. b. Shear Joints - formed by the shearing stresses 3. Shear - stress that pushes one side of a body of rock in c. Compression Joints - rocks may be one direction, and the opposite side of the body of rock in compressed to crushing and numerous joints the opposite direction. The shear forces are pushing in may result due to the compressive forces in this opposite ways. case. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks Rock Strength properties, gives information about the - A rock material is an aggregate of mineral particles. performance of rock materials when subjected to particular loading conditions. Rock Cycle - The process depends on the environmental conditions in 1. Strength the Earth’s crust and at its surface. There are factors - The ability of a material to resist an externally affecting rock cycle: applied load Earth’s internal heat, a. Compressive strength - maximum Erosion amount of compressive stress. Weathering 1. Uniaxial, unconfined; strength Tectonic Activity of the rock when a load acts in Pressure one (1) direction only. Time 2. Triaxial, a rock mass is subjected to an all-around Methods of Studying Properties of Rocks pressure 1. Petrology & Mineralogy b. Tensile strength, ability to take a Petrology: Study of rocks maximum tensile stress Mineralogy: Study of minerals c. Shear strength, capacity of a rock mass 2. Rock Sampling & Testing to take a shear stress. obtain adequate samples for rock identification 2. Deformability in laboratory - capacity of the rock to strain under applied loads 3. Macroscopic Inspection & Microscopic Investigation 3. Hardness Macroscopic: shows the structure of metallic - measure of its relative resistance to scratching. materials 4. Elasticity Microscopic: shows the structure of “internal” - Ability of a material to undergo stress, deform, metallic materials and then recover and return to its original shape 4. Rock Coring and Logging 5. Plasticity Coring: to evaluate the properties of the rock. - ability of a rock to deform continuously and Logging: to accurately report mineral resources permanently without rupture under the stress at all stages of exploration. 5. Jointing Importance of Structural Geology in Civil Engineering Result from brittle fracture of a rock body as the 1. Deformation Study result of tensile stresses and compression 2. Site Stability stresses. 3. Hazard Assessment When this happens the rock fractures in a “plane 4. Resource Exploration parallel to the maximum principal stress and perpendicular to the minimum principal stress”. Importance of Rock Mechanics in Civil Engineering 6. Dating 1. Stress Analysis Determination of the absolute age of rocks and 2. Method Selection minerals using certain radioactive isotopes. 3. Risk Mitigation Physical Properties of Rocks Structural Geology and Mechanics II Index properties, describes the rock material 1. Mineralogical composition Structural Geology and Mechanics II - chemical composition Dynamic Rock Properties 2. Porosity properties that refer to the reaction of a certain material to - percentage of void space in a rock. a force, whether the force is continuous or not. 3. Permeability - ability of a material to transmit fluids. Wave 4. Density - a disturbance in a medium that carries energy without a - Defined as the mass per volume net movement of particles 5. Moisture content - water content, is an indicator of the amount of Types of Wave Theory water present in soil. Longitudinal Waves 6. Anisotropy - moves in the same direction as the wave - property of a material or structure that exhibits Transverse Waves directionally dependent physical properties. - moves perpendicular to the wave’s direction. 7. Durability Seismic waves - resistance of geomaterials to deterioration. - acoustic energy waves that flow through the Earth Mechanical Properties of Rocks The following are the primary wave types that are involved in this field: Tools for grouting. 1. Grout Float - to spread the grout material. 1. Body Waves - travel through the Earth’s interior. The 2. Putty knife - to apply and mix the grout more thoroughly. wave’s path is determined by material qualities such as 3. Grout trowel or Margin trowel - to flatten the applied density and modulus. grout properly on the tile. a. Primary Waves (P-Waves): Primary waves are 4. Sponge and bucket - to remove the excess grout on the compressional waves, longitudinal waves. tiles. P-waves are pressure waves that move faster through the earth than S-waves. Advantages and Disadvantages of Grouting. b. Secondary Waves (S-Waves): Secondary 1. Advantages waves are shear waves, transverse waves. Soil Stabilization Leak Mitigation 2. Surface Waves - move along the Earth’s surface. Structural Repair a. Rayleigh waves: ground roll, travel as ripples Enhanced Stability of Structures with motions similar to water waves. Sealing off cracks and cavities b. Love waves: horizontally polarized shear waves Tile Fillings c. Stoneley waves: a form of boundary wave 2. Disadvantages Too much injection of grout may cause Factors Influencing Wave Velocity damages. Wave Velocity Grouting should be perfectly made. - speed at which a specific part of the wave passes a point Factors that affect wave velocity. Methods of Grouting 1. Medium Type 1. Injection grouting 2. Density - filling the cracks, open joints, voids, or 3. Elasticity honeycombs, in concrete or masonry structural 4. Porosity and Saturations members 5. Temperature 2. Permeation grouting 6. Pressure - cement grouting, involves the injection of a pumpable material (slurry or grout) Statics and Dynamics of Modulus of Elasticity 3. Compaction grouting Modulus of Elasticity - measure of the stiffness of a - a ground improvement technique that is used to material / how easily any material can bend or be stabilize and densify comprisable soils stretched. 4. Curtain grouting - a waterproofing technique used to stop multiple Three Types of Modulus Elasticity leaks in underground structures 1. Modulus of Deformation (Young Modulus) - it is the 5. Jet grouting ratio of principal stress in one direction to corresponding - a ground reinforcement technique strain in the elastic range in the same direction. 6. Fracture grouting 2. Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus) - one of the - the injection of a cement slurry grout into the soil measures of the mechanical properties of solids creating and filling fractures 3. Bulk Modulus - proportion of the material's volumetric stress that is correlated with its volumetric strain Importance of Grouting 1. Foundation Stabilization Types of Young’s Elastic Modulus 2. Soil Improvement 1. Static Moduli - directly measured in a deformational 3. Water Control and Sealing experiment 4. Concrete Crack Repair 2. Dynamic Moduli - can be calculated knowing the rock 5. Dam and Embankment Sealing density as well as compressional and elastic-wave velocity Geological and Geophysical Investigation in CE I Grouting Grout Geological and Geophysical Investigation in CE I - a thin mortar used for filling spaces Geological investigations aim to understand the geological history of a site, identify Grouting potential hazards, and assess the suitability of the ground - the process of applying grout on different materials for construction. The main objectives of a geological investigation for most engineering projects are to Types of grouting materials. determine the: Epoxy grout – it is similar to cement grout but epoxy 1. Geological Structure of the area grouts are more durable and more resistant 2. Lithology of the area Cement grout – combination of water, sand, and cement 3. Groundwater Conditions of the area Acrylic Grout – ready to made grout  4. Seismicity of the region Here are the key components of a Preliminary Site Investigation: Geophysical investigations Desktop study Utilize physical principles to study the subsurface without Site inspection the need for extensive excavation. Its main objectives in Interviews most engineering projects are to detect: 1. Geologic Anomalies 4. Detailed site investigation 2. Buried Pipes A comprehensive and intrusive examination of a 3. Water Bearing Aquifers site to determine the impact of former land use 4. Potential Quarrying Exploitation activities on the environment. 5. Soil Stratification or Layering Two types of Detailed Site Investigation: Geological and geophysical investigations play a crucial role in Intrusive DSI: Always involves the various civil engineering projects, including: collection of soil samples, to assess Foundation design contamination levels and identify Tunnel construction potential receptors. Dam construction Non-intrusive DSI: This may involve Environmental impact assessments desktop studies, literature reviews, and limited field inspections Purpose of Geological and Geophysical Investigations Risk mitigation 5. Supplementary site investigation Optimizing design to gather additional information or data about a Ensuring structural stability site. This includes: Protecting the environment Incomplete investigation: supplementary investigation is Scope of Geological and Geophysical Investigations conducted Characterizing the subsurface Serious procedural violations: If Assessing subsurface conditions significant violations of the code of Identifying potential risks criminal procedure occur during the Providing data for design initial investigation New accusations or changes to existing Site Investigation accusations: When new evidence collects information, assesses the data, and reports emerges or existing accusations potential hazards beneath an unknown site require modification Separation of materials: In cases Site investigation can be categorized by the following: involving multiple individuals or entities 1. Soil investigation 2. Geologic survey maps Whom are concerned: 3. Preliminary investigations Civil Engineers 4. Detailed site investigations - are directly concerned with site investigation 5. Supplementary investigations and construction control because it provides critical data for the planning, design, and construction of infrastructure Importance of a Site Investigation projects. Ensuring safety and preventing potential hazards a. Foundation design and stability Informing foundation design and preventing potential b. Risk management and safety failure c. Material selection and structural design Identifying the need for soil treatment and reducing risks d. Groundwater and drainage issues Improving construction planning and reducing costs e. Cost and feasibility assessment Assessing environmental considerations and ensuring f. Environmental and regulatory compliance with regulations compliance Types of Site Investigation Civilians 1. Soil investigation - indirectly affected but significantly affected by involves taking samples and conducting tests to site investigations understand soil properties, strengths, and weaknesses Tools and Equipment in Site Investigations 2. Geologic maps survey 1. Total Station are uniquely suited to solving problems involving - precise topographic and land surveys earth resources, hazards, and environments 2. Theodolite 3. Preliminary site investigation - horizontal and vertical angles is an essential step in determining the suitability 3. Gps Receiver of a site for development, construction, or - location data for mapping and aligning site environmental assessments. 4. Borehole Drilling Rig  - Drills deep boreholes into the ground Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): Utilizes 5. Auger (Hand And Power) electromagnetic waves to image the subsurface, - shallow soil sampling helpful in locating utilities and other anomalies. 6. Standard Penetration Test (Spt) Equipment 3. Laboratory Testing. To determine the mechanical and - soil resistance to penetration physical properties of soil and rock samples. 7. Cone Penetration Test (Cpt) Equipment Soil Classification Tests: Including grain size - soil stratigraphy and strength distribution and Atterberg limits. 8. Vane Shear Test Shear Strength Tests: Such as triaxial shear and - shear strength of cohesive soils direct shear tests. 9. Piezometer Compaction Tests: optimal moisture content for - pore water pressure in soils soil compaction. 10. Inclinometer 4. Hydrogeological Methods. To assess groundwater - ground movement and slope stability conditions, which can affect the stability of structures. 11. Pressure Meter Pumping Tests: permeability of aquifers. - in-site stress-strain properties of soils and rocks Piezometers: monitor groundwater levels and 12. Seismic Refraction Equipment pressure. - measure seismic wave velocities 5. Remote Sensing and GIS. To analyze geological 13. Electrical Resistivity Meter conditions in large areas. - Detects variations in subsurface materials Satellite Imagery: Helps in identifying geological 14. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) features such as faults and landslides. - Non-invasive tool for detecting underground Geographical Information Systems (GIS): spatial 15. Soil Sampler (Shelby Tube Or Split Spoon) data, including topography, geology, and land - Collects undisturbed soil samples for laboratory use. 16. Core Barrel 6. Rock Mechanics. To assess the strength and behavior of - to extract rock cores rock masses, which is critical for tunneling and dam 17. Sieve Shaker construction. - determine particle size distribution In-situ Stress Measurements: natural stress 18. Triaxial Test Apparatus state of rock masses. - testing soil samples to determine shear strength, Rock Mass Classification Systems: designing cohesion, and friction angle support systems for tunnels and other 19. Oedometer underground structures. - soil compressibility and consolidation properties 7. Engineering Geology Mapping. To create detailed 20. Water Level Meter maps that illustrate the geological features of a site. - depth of groundwater in boreholes Geological Mapping: Involves field surveys to document the types of soil and rock, faults, Total Station folds, and other geological structures. Borehole Drilling Rig 8. Monitoring and Instrumentation. To track the SPT Equipment performance of structures and the stability of slopes. CPT Equipment Inclinometers: Used to measure ground Piezometer movement. Triaxial Test Apparatus are typically considered the most Settlement Gauges: To monitor subsidence or crucial tools. settlement in structures. Geological methods Site Exploration Techniques provide critical insights into the subsurface conditions that conducted to identify, analyze, and thoroughly observe directly impact the safety, stability, and durability of the stratification and engineering properties of the soil structures surrounding and underlying the site. Important Geological Techniques in Civil Engineering 1. Geophysical Surveys 1. Site Investigation. To gather data about the subsurface use ground-based sensing techniques to map a conditions. site without sampling. Borehole Drilling: determine the stratigraphy, Functions include mapping subsurface layers, and physical properties, and to assess detecting groundwater, identifying geological groundwater conditions. hazards, and planning construction. Trial Pits: Excavated to directly observe Application: Bridge Construction subsurface conditions at shallow depths. 1. Site Selection 2. Geophysical Methods. Non-invasive techniques to 2. Seismic Refraction detect subsurface features. 3. Electrical Resistivity Seismic Refraction and Reflection: Used to 4. Data Interpretation determine the depth and structure of rock layers. 2. Geologic Mapping Electrical Resistivity: flow of electric current, are valuable for presenting data on rock types, useful in detecting water tables. soils, and structures in relation to landforms and topography  Functions include identifying rock types, fault Importance of Ground penetrating radar (GPR) detection, landform analysis, and predicting Non- invasive subsurface conditions. Detailed Imaging Application: Dam Construction Cost and time efficient 1. Site Analysis Safety 2. Structural Stability Versatile 3. Landslide Risk Accurate data 4. Seismic Considerations Real-time results 3. Desktop Survey the first step in site exploration Limitations of Ground penetrating radar (GPR) Functions include initial site assessment, risk Highly conductive materials identification, cost efficiency, and Small objects decision-making. Complex ground conditions Application: Residential Community Highly reflective surfaces Development Subsurface voids and cavities 1. Data Collection 2. Contamination Risk Seismic Methods 3. Environmental Assessment an essential technique in geophysics, widely used to 4. Project Planning study the Earth's subsurface 4. Geochemical Surveys used to study an area's condition by analyzing Importance of seismic methods geological samples like soil, rocks, and minerals. 1. Environmental Studies Functions include resource identification, soil 2. Natural Hazard Assessment composition analysis, environmental monitoring, 3. Civil Engineering and supporting exploration. Application: Mining Projects Seismic instruments and equipment 1. Sample Collection 1. Seismic Sources: 2. Laboratory Analysis Explosive Charges: Controlled explosions 3. Mineral Identification Vibrators: Specialized trucks equipped with 4. Exploration Planning vibrational devices generate seismic waves 2. Geophones: sensors placed on the ground surface or in Geological and Geophysical Investigation in CE II boreholes to detect ground motion caused by seismic waves Geological and Geophysical Investigation in CE II 3. Recording Systems: Seismic Recorders: record the signals from Geophysical methods geophones or accelerometers. techniques used to investigate and understand the Data Acquisition Systems: systems collect and properties of the Earth's subsurface without physical store the recorded data for later processing. excavation 4. Drilling Equipment (for Borehole Seismology): used to create boreholes for the placement of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) geophones or accelerometers at depth. a geophysical method used to inspect and map subsurface structures. It works by sending high-frequency Applications of Seismic Method radar pulses into the ground 1. Oil and Gas Exploration Parts of Ground penetrating radar (GPR) 2. Mineral Exploration 1. Antenna - core component of the GPR system 3. Environmental and Engineering Studies: 2. Control Unit - central hub 4. Civil Engineering and Infrastructure Development: 3. Data Logger/Display - the interface for data 5. Natural Hazard Assessment: visualization, storage, and preliminary analysis. 6. Groundwater Exploration 4. Power Supply - ensures the GPR system operates continuously and efficiently during a Electrical Methods survey. used by surface geophysics to measure subsurface electric properties, either passively or artificially, using Process of Ground penetrating radar (GPR) voltage potentials, currents, and electromagnetic fields. 1. Setup 2. Calibration Types of Electrical Method 3. Data Collection 1. Direct Current Electrical Resistivity Method 4. Processing measures subsurface electrical resistivity by 5. Analysis introducing artificially generated electric currents 6. Reporting into the ground 2. Induced Polarization (IP)  measures the capacitance of subsurface 2. Portable core drilling machine is composed of three main materials, a complementary technique to parts: an electric motor speed reducer, support column, electrical resistivity surveying. and light alloy base. Resistivity Meter 3. Laboratory coring machine is specially designed for - Electronic instruments used to measure laboratory use—cutting hard materials such as rocks and fluid resistivity, slurries, or semi- solids, concrete for example. and obtain conductivity 4. Pavement core drilling machine a heavy- weight machine can be used for all types of material Electrical Resistivity and Induced Polarization Applications: Geologic conditions necessary for constructions of dams a. Utility Mapping - for project safety, as conditions that can help in building dams. unexpected encounters with underground Narrow river valleys features can lead to dangerous conditions Bedrock b. Subsidence Mapping - global concern due to Proper geological structure groundwater depletion and population demand c. Soil Resistivity Mapping - for cathodic protection Procedures in constructing a dam in buried structures 1. Diverting the river 2. Preparing the foundation 3. Self-Potential Method - method is a low-cost, 3. Building the dam non-invasive geophysical technique used to investigate 4. Filling the reservoir groundwater flow and contaminant plumes in the 5. Testing valves and floodgates subsurface. Uses a voltmeter as an equipment. 6. Monitoring Voltmeter - used to find the voltage levels around an electrical circuit when connected in Some conditions necessary for building a tunnel. parallel Rock strength and deformation behavior Self-Potential Method Applications: Ideal strata a. Groundwater Exploration Groundwater conditions b. Subsurface Contamination Mapping Stable slopes c. Geotechnical Investigations d. Landslide and Sinkhole Investigations Procedures in constructing a tunnel 1. Feasibility and Design Direct penetration 2. Site Investigation underground conditions at specific sites by physically 3. Method Selection sampling and testing soil, rock, and groundwater 4. Excavation and Support (Villegas, 2021). 5. Interior Finishing and Safety Measures 6. Commissioning Types of Direct penetration 1. Trial Pits and Trenches needed to take into consideration when erecting buildings. test pits, are a type of subsurface ground Flood and Earthquake risk investigation used to visually determine the Soil type ground conditions before construction begins. Groundwater levels 2. Cone Penetration Testing (CPT): Topography and slope stability used to identify subsurface conditions in the Seismic activity upper 100 ft of the subsurface. Procedures in constructing buildings Core boring logging of cores 1. Site Clearing Core Boring or Core Drilling 2. Excavation method using a hollow drill to explore specific surfaces 3. Foundation Core drilling is an important process for any project that 4. Brick Laying requires gauging the properties of different materials 5. Slab Construction 6. Exterior and Interior finishing Types of Coring 7. Final inspection and Finishing 1. Soft coring for extracting unconsolidated material from deep Road cutting depths act of cutting through a hill or a mountain in order to build 2. Hard coring roads through it and not over it diamond coring, is a process used to competent rock samples from sandstone These are the vital things that should be considered when doing road cuttings. Equipment used in Core Boring: Topography 1. Universal core drilling machines are ideal for drilling Lithological survey projects where it is necessary to core at any angle. Groundwater conditions Procedures in constructing a road cutting 1. Planning 2. Marking 3. Groundwork 4. Base and Subbase Course 5. Paving 6. Road Marking 7. Quality control