General Biology 2 Reviewer 2024-2025 PDF

Reproduction Overview:  Ecosystem Function: Influences To primary mechanisms: ecological balance and species  Asexual Reproduction: Offspring roles (e.g., pollinators) genetically identical...

Reproduction Overview:  Ecosystem Function: Influences To primary mechanisms: ecological balance and species  Asexual Reproduction: Offspring roles (e.g., pollinators) genetically identical to the parent (e.g.,  Biodiversity: Essential for budding, fission, fragmentation) maintaining healthy ecosystems  Sexual Reproduction: Combines genetic Summary of Plant and Animal Nutrient material from two parents, resulting in Procurement and Processing genetic diversity (e.g., formation of zygote)  Nutrients: Substances needed for  Asexual Reproduction Types: organism growth and maintenance.  Binary Fission: Division into two  Types of Organisms: identical cells (common in bacteria)  Autotrophs: Produce their food  Budding: New organism develops using sunlight and chemicals. from a bud (e.g., yeast, hydra)  Heterotrophs: Obtain food by  Fragmentation: Breaking into consuming other organisms. fragments that grow into new  Plant Nutrition: individuals (e.g., starfish)  Plants absorb nutrients and  Vegetative Propagation: New water through roots and carbon plants from vegetative parts (e.g., dioxide from the atmosphere. runners in strawberries)  Chemical Composition:  Regeneration: Regrowth of lost Mainly water (80-90% of plant body parts (e.g., planarians) weight).  Spore Formation: Production of  Root Hairs: Extensions that spores that develop into new increase absorption surface individuals (common in fungi) area.  Sexual Reproduction in Plants:  Phloem: Transports sugars Involves pollination of flowers throughout the plant.  Self-Pollination: Pollen fertilizes  Nutritional Requirements for Plants: ovules of the same flower  Macronutrients: Needed in  Cross-Pollination: Pollen large amounts (e.g., Water, transferred between different plants Carbon Dioxide). for genetic diversity  Micronutrients: Needed in  Reproductive Structures in Flowers: smaller amounts.  Stamens: Male sex organs (anther  Nutritional Adaptations in Plants: produces pollen)  Symbiosis with Microbes:  Pistil (Carpel): Female sex organ Plants gain nutrients; microbes (contains ovules in the ovary) gain resources.  Parts of a flower: sepals, petals,  Mycorrhiza: Fungi enhance stamens, pistil nutrient absorption for plants.  Reproduction in Animals:  Parasitism: Some plants  Sexual Reproduction: Fusion of absorb nutrients from hosts sperm and egg to form a zygote (e.g., mistletoes).  Fertilization Types:  Animal Nutrition:  External: Occurs outside the  Nutritional needs include female body carbohydrates, proteins, and  Internal: Occurs within the female fats. body  Calories: Measure of energy in o Various developmental strategies: food. Oviparity, Ovoviviparity,  Types of Feeding Mechanisms in Viviparity Animals:  Importance of Reproduction:  Substrate Feeders: Live on or in their  Genetic Diversity: Enhances food source. adaptability and resilience of  Filter Feeders: Strain small organisms species from water.  Fluid Feeders: Suck nutrients from hosts.  Gills System: Aquatic animals extract  Bulk Feeders: Consume large pieces of oxygen from water using gills (e.g., fish). food.  Tracheal System: Insects breathe  Digestive Compartments: through spiracles that connect to a  Food Vacuole: For unicellular organisms. network of air tubes.  Gastrovascular Cavity: Incomplete  Lungs System: Land animals use lungs digestive system. to exchange gases with blood.  Complete Digestive System: Tube-like  Plant Gas Exchange with separate openings.  Stomata: Openings on leaves for gas  Stages of Food Processing: exchange (CO2 in, O2 out).  Ingestion: Eating and mechanical  Roots: Absorb oxygen from soil. breakdown.  Stems: Some have lenticels to facilitate  Digestion: Breaking food into nutrient gas exchange. molecules.  Oxygen Consumption and Production  Absorption: Nutrients enter body fluids.  An adult consumes approximately 740 kg  Elimination: Expulsion of undigested of oxygen/year, equivalent to the oxygen materials. produced by about eight trees.  Organs Involved in Digestion:  Oral Cavity: Chewing and saliva mixing.  Definition: The transport system is a  Pharynx: Entrance to esophagus. biological mechanism that moves  Esophagus: Transports food to the necessary substances (nutrients, gases, stomach. waste) to and from cells, essential for  Stomach: Mixes food and secretes maintaining life. gastric juices.  Functions of Transport System:  Small Intestine: Main site for digestion  Moves materials throughout the and absorption. organism's body.  Large Intestine: Absorbs minerals and  Regulates body temperature in water. vertebrates.  Rectum: Stores and expels feces.  Maintains water balance in mammals.  Transports hormones to target organs. Nutrition Types  Distributes excess substances to storage  Autotrophs: Organisms that produce tissues. their food (e.g., plants).  Carries substances needed by  Heterotrophs: Organisms that consume reproductive cells. other organisms for food (e.g., animals).  Materials for Transportation: Stages of Food Processing  Water, gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide),  Ingestion: Taking in food. digested food, vitamins, amino acids,  Digestion: Breaking down food. hormones, excretory products.  Absorption: Nutrients entering the  Media for Transportation: bloodstream.  Cytoplasm, water, body fluids, blood,  Elimination: Removing waste. lymph, cell sap, latex. Importance of Gas Exchange  Organisms and Transport:  Essential for life; supplies oxygen for  Small Organisms (e.g., Amoeba): Use metabolism and removes carbon dioxide. diffusion due to high surface area to Gas Exchange Mechanism volume ratio.  Diffusion: Movement of gases across a  Complex Organisms: Require moist membrane. specialized systems (e.g., circulatory  Respiration systems) as diffusion is insufficient.  Process where organisms use oxygen  Types of Circulatory System: and produce carbon dioxide.  Open Circulatory System: Found in  Oxygen Acquisition in Animals invertebrates (e.g., insects), where body  Skin System: Breathing through moist fluid bathes cells directly. skin (e.g., worms).   Closed Circulatory System: Found in capillaries. Nutrients carried in vertebrates (e.g., mammals), where blood the blood diffuse into the circulates within vessels. tissues from the capillaries.  Human Circulatory System  Veins: The veins carry the Components: deoxygenated blood from the  Heart: Pumps blood; has four chambers tissues of the body back to the (two atria, two ventricles). heart. Capillaries also merge  Blood: Composed of plasma (55%) and into the venous system (the blood cells (45%). veins) so that  Red Blood Cells: Carry oxygen.  White Blood Cells: Fight infections.  Platelets: Help in blood clotting.  Blood Vessels: Arteries (carry blood away from the heart), veins (carry blood back), and capillaries (exchange of materials).  Types of Circulation:  Pulmonary Circulation: Moves deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation.  Systemic Circulation: Distributes oxygenated blood to the body.  Coronary Circulation: Supplies blood to the heart muscle itself.  Transportation in Plants:  Xylem: Transports water and minerals from roots to leaves (unidirectional).  Phloem: Transports sugars from leaves to other parts (bidirectional).  Transpiration: Water loss through stomata helps draw water up the plant.  Active and Passive Absorption: Mechanisms for water uptake.  Gas Exchange in Plants: Occurs through stomata, controlled by guard cells, allowing for the intake of carbon dioxide and release of oxygen. Primary components in the circulatory system:  Blood - is a fluid consisting of red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma, and platelets.  The blood carries oxygen, nutrients, and waste to and away from all body tissues.  Blood Vessels  Arteries: The arteries carry the oxygenated blood to the tissues of the body from the heart.  Capillaries: The arteries branch into smaller sections called arterioles and then into even smaller sections called