Gen-Bio-Reviewer-Biological-Macromolecules (2) PDF

Carbohydrates (Made by: Jhayvee Anggati) Pretest 1. 2 elements are in every organic compounds - Carbon & Hydrogen 2. True about inorganic compounds - Does not contain a C-H bond but contains carbon 3. Type of carbohydrate is sucrose - Disaccharide 4. A form must all ca...

Carbohydrates (Made by: Jhayvee Anggati) Pretest 1. 2 elements are in every organic compounds - Carbon & Hydrogen 2. True about inorganic compounds - Does not contain a C-H bond but contains carbon 3. Type of carbohydrate is sucrose - Disaccharide 4. A form must all carbohydrates be in cells to use them as an source of energy - Glucose 5. Carbohydrates preferred our body’s as source of energy - They can be used efficiently as fuel Organic Molecules - aka hydrocarbons - CONTAIN the elements of Carbon & Hydrogen, and a simple C-H bond & arranged in rings or chains - chemically large, complex & high in energy - Example: methane (CH4), glucose (C6H12O6) Inorganic Molecules - DO NOT CONTAIN the elements carbon & hydrogen, lack of C-H bonds - mostly simple (low in energy) and chemically small & are obtained from the natural processes - Example: NaCl, H2O - H2O (water) Comprises 75-85% of the body weight Universal solvent - O2 (oxygen) 21% of the atmosphere Utilized by animals during respiration ∆Crops – did not receive any pesticides (with few exceptions), petroleum- based fertilizers or sewage sludge. Cows, pigs, and chickens no growth hormones or antibiotics & exposed outdoor to be able to eat organic food. ✅ (FDA APPROVED) ∆Genetically engineered or treated with ionizing radiation food ❎ (NOT FDA APPROVED) OCCP (The Organic Certification Center of the Philippines) – conducts training on organic farming & organic certification. 4 Major Categories 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Nucleic Acids 4. Proteins Carbohydrates (C, H, O) - Principal source of energy - Provide shape to certain cells - Components of many antibiotics & coenzymes - Essential part of DNA Types of Carbohydrates 1. Monosaccharide – simple sugar ∆ 5-C sugar – ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA 2 ∆ 6 – C sugar – C6H1206 - Glucose, Fructose, Galactose ISOMERS 3  Fructose simple sugar found in fruits Glucose - blood sugar in the blood Galactose simple sugar found in milk 2. Disaccharide - combination of 2 simple sugar Sucrose – reg. table sugar made from sugarcane sap & sugar beet root - glucose + fructose Lactose – or milk sugar - glucose + galactose Maltose – or grain sugar made from grains such as barley, rice or wheat - glucose + glucose 4 - 3. Polysaccharide – complex sugar Starch is also known as Amylose is the stored form of glucose in plants Animals stored glucose as Glycogen in the liver & muscles Cellulose - Humans cannot digest - Source of FIBER (e.g. VEGETABLES like broccoli, asparagus etc.) - But RUMINANTS can digest CELLULOSE Chitin - Exoskeleton of insects, spiders & crustaceans - Like cellulose, it also supports cells, resembles a glucose polymer except that it contains nitrogen atoms. - Used in manufacture of surgical thread because it is tough, flexible & biodegradable 5 Lipids Pretest 1. Characteristics of lipids - They are not soluble in water 2. Oil & water don’t mix because water has polar bonds while oil have nonpolar bonds - True 3. Components of triglyceride molecule - 1 glycerol & 3 fatty acids 4. Like soap, molecules is also amphophilic – having both a hydrophilic & hydrophobic enzymes - Phospholipids 6. Some functions of lipids include waterproofing, temperature regulation & long-term energy storage. Common types of lipids - Fats, Waxes & Oils Lipids (CH, O) - DO NOT dissolve in water but can be dissolve in non-polar solvents - Hydrophobic, contain long chains of non-polar carbon-carbon & carbon- hydrogen bonds - Can be synthesized from carbohydrates in cells Functions of Lipids - Contain more stored energy (9 food calories or 37 kJ of energy per gram) - Cushion of vital organs & provides insulation against cold - Play important roles in plasma membrane structure & serve as precursors for important reproductive hormones 6 Saturated Fats - More C-H bonds means more energy or calories - Solid at room temperature - Come from animal fats such as bacon fat & butter - May increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis. Unsaturated Fats 7 - Has double bond between carbon atoms & fewer hydrogen bonds - Liquid in room temperature - Come from plants such as corn oil & olive oil - Healthier than saturated counterparts 8 Trans Fat - Vegetable oils which are made of unsaturated fats turned into solid fats - Done by attaching hydrogen atoms onto the carbons that makes it chemically look & taste like saturated fat - Called hydrogenated vegetable oil or trans fat, which are unsaturated fats whose fatty acid tails are straight 9 Types of Lipids 1. Triglyceride - Known as fat molecule - Consists of 3 long hydrocarbon chains attached to a carboxyl group called fatty acids bonded to glycerol forms the triglyceride’s backbone 10  2. Cholesterol - Common steroid present in any food from animal source - Animal cells use cholesterol as a starting material to make other lipids including vitamin D, sex hormones, testosterone & estrogen. 11  3. Steroids Hormones - Hormones are substances that interact with target cells to signal the cell’s activity to change - Distinct lipids with four interconnected rings structure Produce from cholesterol Examples: - Testosterone, estrogen - Calciferol – made in skin (cholesterol & sunlight) - Increases absorption of calcium - Phospholipids – a lipid composed of 2 fatty acids, a unit of glycerol & a phosphorus-containing acid 12 PostTest 1. Least describe lipids - They are more soluble in water - They are good at storing energy ❎ - They are either strongly hydrophobic or amphipatic ❎ - Extraction of lipids from tissues require organic solvent ❎ 2. Incorrect statement about the biological functions of lipids - Exhibit increased catalytic activity - Storage form of metabolic fuel ❎ - The structural component of membranes ❎ - Have a protective function in bacteria, plant & insects ❎ 3. Both vegetable oil & butter are made up of fats. Why is butter solid at room temperature, while vegetable oil is liquid? - Butter is saturated fat & vegetable oil is an unsaturated fat 4. Unsaturated lipids are generally liquid at room temperature because their hydrocarbons are _______ packed because of their ______ bonds. - Loosely; double 13 Nucleic Acids Pretest 1. True about the differences between DNA & RNA? - DNA is double stranded & RNA is simple stranded - Uracil replaces thymine in RNA - The sugar in their nucleotides is different 2. Building blocks of DNA & RNA - Nucleotides 3. In a sample of double-stranded DNA, 40% of the nitrogenous bases are thymine(T). The percentage of the bases are adenine(A) - 40% 4. Nitrogenous bases that are not found in RNA - Thymine 5. NOT describe the role of RNA - Stores genetic information in the form of code - Can leave the nucleus ❎ - Links together amino acids ❎ - Transfer information from the mRNA to the ribosomes ❎ Nucleic Acids - C, H, O, N, P (contain no Sulfur (S) ) - Polymeric molecule that store & transfer information within a cell 2 Types - DNA – serves as a genetic material - RNA – for the manufacture of proteins - Nucleotides – fundamental monomers of nucleic acids - Note: REMEMBER THE 3 - Pentose sugar - Phosphate group - Nitrogenous bases 14 Deoxyribonucleic Acid - Carries the genetic information in all organisms - The blueprint in which all the traits such color of the eyes, height & even diseases are encoded - Eukaryotes – found in nucleus & mitochondria & chloroplast of plants - Prokaryotes – found in specialized region in the cytoplasm called nucleoid 15  Functions of DNA - Stores genetic information, its nucleotide sequence tells a cell which amino acids to string together to form each protein - Slight changes in DNA account for many of the evolutionary changes that have occurred throughout life’s history - DNA & protein sequence reveal important information about how species are related to one another Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) - Single stranded - Ribose is its pentose sugar - Involved in the synthesis of proteins, regulation of genes & carrier of genetic information in some viruses 16 Types of RNA 1. mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid) - An intermediate between a protein-coding gene and its protein product is messenger RNA (mRNA) - Replaces only the Thymine (T) with Uracil (U) while the rest remain constant or same 2. rRNA (ribosomal ribonucleic acid) - a major component of ribosomes, where it helps to bind mRNA in the right place so that it can read out its sequence information 3. tRNA (transfer ribonucleic acid) - responsible for choosing the right amino acid (1 element used to produce a protein) to carry within a cell to the ribosome 17 PostTest 1. True regarding DNA structure - DNA forms a double helix 2. Statement that is true - The bases in nucleotides are attached to a pentose sugar by a glycosidic linkage 3. Represents a nucleotide of RNA - I. Phosphate-Sugar-Adenine - II. Phosphate-Sugar-Uracil - III. Phosphate-Sugar Thymine ❎ - I & II 4. Strands are complementary DNA sequences - 5’ CTGTCA 3’ and 5’ TGACAG 3’ - 5’ CCGGAT 3’ and 5’ ATCCCG 3’ ❎ - 5’ CTGTCA 3’ and 5’ GACAGT 3’ ❎ - 5’ CGCUTG 3’ and 5’ CGCUTG 3’ ❎ - Note: Look carefully & closely to the end of the sequence and start coding it backwardly to identify 5’3’ → 3’5’ 5. DNA does all except______ - Is read by ribosomes during the process of translation 18 Proteins Pretest 1. Proteins are biological molecules made of_____ - Amino Acids 2. Properties of a protein is least likely to be affected by changes in pH - Primary Structure 3. Polypeptides are chains of amino acids linked together in a specific order. Type of bonds are formed between the amino acids - Peptide Bonds 4. The primary structure of protein represents_____ - Linear sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds 5. Functions of protein in the human body - To repair tissues - To act as enzymes - To serve as antibodies Proteins - C, H, O, N - Synthesize from 100 or more amino acids linked together in a precise arrangement - Repairing & building of tissues - Acting as enzymes - Aiding the immune system; and - Served as hormones, that control specific physiological processes 19 20 Complete Protein Incomplete Protein – are missing one or more essential amino acids 21 Protein Folding & Structure 1. Primary (1’) Structure - least likely to be affected by changes in pH - linear sequence of amino acids in a protein 22  2. Secondary (2’) Structure - Keratin – a protein that is found in our hair, skin & nails - Collagen – a vital component of the connective tissue found in tendons & ligaments 3. Tertiary (3’) Structure - Example of this is antibodies - Antibodies – are proteins that destroys any foreign agents that enters the body such as virus & bacteria 23  4. Quarternary (4’) Structure - Hemoglobin – carries oxygen in the blood and is made up of 4 subunits, 2 each of the α & β types 24 Sickle Cell Anemia Denaturation of Proteins - Heat - Excessive salt - Wrong pH level 25