General Biology I - 2nd Qrt 1st Sem PDF

GENERAL BIOLOGY I TUGUEGARAO CITY SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL BIOMOLECULES BIOMOLECULE - Are created or synthesized by living things - Molecules with carbon - It can sustain life and provide energy to living things. HYDROLYSI...

GENERAL BIOLOGY I TUGUEGARAO CITY SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL BIOMOLECULES BIOMOLECULE - Are created or synthesized by living things - Molecules with carbon - It can sustain life and provide energy to living things. HYDROLYSIS - Geological process cannot create biomolecules - Turns a peptide chain into amino acids. but, biomolecules can move by the geological - 2 bonded monomers split apart using a water process molecule. - Water molecule MACROMOLECULES - Destruction - Breaks down polymer to form - It is macronutrient. monomer. - Macro - means big or large. - All living things are made up of four classes of large biological molecules: ★ Carbohydrates ★ Lipids ★ Proteins ★ Nucleic acids VIEWING ASSIGNMENT : BIOMOLECULES ✿ If there is protein in mars, there can be a living thing ✿ Food is a source of large molecules that are needed there. for life, called biomolecules / macromolecules. ✿Water is a molecule but, they are not biomolecule. ✿ Even before living things are here, water and oxygen 1. CARBOHYDRATES are already here. - Food sources like bread, pasta, fruit, and ✿ There is no carbohydrates in rocks - Lipids are not vegetables are high in carbohydrates. created in atmosphere. - Monomer: Monosaccharide (ex: sugar glucose) ✿ We can get molecules from living things. GLUCOSE MONOMER VS POLYMER - Used in cellular respiration to make ATP, an energy currency. A. MONOMER - Building blocks of biomolecule ✿ Glucose makes carbohydrates a fast major source of - 1 unit of a biomolecule energy for cells. ★ mono - one unit - Basic form of biomolecule 2. LIPIDS ★ basic - smallest entity - Food sources: butter or olive oil - Amino acids are monomers of polypeptides ✿ Lipids make up cell membrane structure. (protein). ✿ Major function: A source of long term energy storage. ✿ Lipids are also important for different types of ✿ Combining monomers we create a polymer. insulation. This may involve helping a cell carry an ✿ Amino acid is the smallest protein in the planet, electrical impulse or temperature regulation. while Proteins are the largest protein in the planet. ✿ Many lipids act as hormones, which are chemical messengers for diff. Processes. B. POLYMER - A long molecule consisting of many building 3. PROTEINS blockers called monomers. - Food sources: beans, meat, nut, eggs - Complex form of biomolecule and a product of a - Monomer: Amino acid chemical reaction. ✿ Proteins can be found embedded in cell membranes - Starch is the polymer of glucose. as protein channels. Channels are important to that cell membrane structure with functions of letting certain substances pass through ✿ Proteins can also be receptors which are critical in cell signaling. 4. NUCLEIC ACID - Includes DNA and RNA - Monomer: Nucleotide VIEWING ASSIGNMENT : HOW THE FOOD YOU EAT AFFECTS YOUR BRAIN ✿ Most of the weight of your dehydrated brain would come from fats, also known as lipids. - In the remaining brain matter, you would find proteins and amino acids, traces of micronutrients, and glucose. - Each component has a distinct impact on CREATING AND BREAKING DOWN POLYMERS functioning, development, mood and energy. DEHYDRATION / CONDENSATION REACTION - Produces maltose from 2 glucose molecules. ✿ Of the fats in your brain, the superstars are the - 2 monomers bond together through the loss of a OMEGA 3 & 6. water molecule. - Formation of polymer from monomer. GEN BIO | 1 OMEGA 3 & 6 - These are essential fatty acids (which have BIOMOLECULE: CARBOHYDRATES been linked to preventing degenerative brain CARBOHYDRATES conditions, which must come from our diets.) - Simplest carbohydrate monomers are ★ So eating omega-rich foods (ex: nuts, Monosaccharide. seeds, fatty fish) is crucial to the - More complex carbohydrate polymers are called creation and maintenance of cell Polysaccharides. membranes. OMEGAS MONOSACCHARIDE - Good fats for your brain. - They have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH2O. PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS - Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most common - The building blocks nutrients of growth and monosaccharide. development. - Manipulates how we feel and behave. ✿ Some common carbohydrate monomers: a. Fructose - Fruit sugar (Plants, Mono) ✿ Amino acids contain the precursors to b. Galactose - Milk sugar (Mammals, Mono) neurotransmitters. c. Ribose - Component of RNA - Chemical messengers that carry signals d. Deoxyribose - Component of DNA between neurons affecting things like mood, sleep, attentiveness, and weight. ✿ 2 Monosaccharides bond together using a ✿ Long-term consumption of other fats like trans and dehydration reaction to create a Disaccharide. saturated fats, may compromise brain health. a. Sucrose - Glucose + Fructose ✿ The complex combinations of compounds in food can - More known as “table sugar ". stimulate brain cells to release mood-altering - Main disaccharide that makes our food norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. sweet. ✿ A diet with a range of foods helps maintain a - Any plant-based item that is sweet has balanced combination of brain messengers and keeps sucrose. your mod from getting skewed in one direction or the b. Maltose - Glucose + Glucose other. - Ex: Starch - If we eat, the mouth is exposed to salivary ✿ Like other organs in our body, our brains also benefit amylase, then Starch converts into from a steady supply of micronutrients. maltose in our mouth which is a way of ★ Antioxidants from fruits and vegetables chemical digestion. strengthen the brain to fight off free radicals that destroy brain cells enabling your brain to work c. Lactose - Glucose + Galactose well for a longer period of time. - There are people who are lactose ★ Without powerful micronutrients like the vitamin intolerant - they cannot consume enough B6, B12, and folic acid, our brains would be lactase, if they have intake of this lactose, susceptible to brain disease and mental decline. they will have discomfort. ★ Trace amounts of the minerals, iron, copper, zinc, and sodium are also fundamental to brain POLYSACCHARIDE health and early cognitive development. - Are long chains of single sugars. ✿ In order for the brain to efficiently transform and - Some important polysaccharides include Starch synthesize these valuable nutrients, it needs fuel (lots of (also called amylose), Glycogen, Cellulose it). While the human brain only makes up about 2% of (found in plant cell walls, the “fiber” that you see our body weight, it uses up to 20% of our energy on food labels) and Chitin. resources. ★ Most of this energy comes from carbohydrates STRUCTURAL that our body digests into glucose or blood 1. CELLULOSE sugar. - From plants and cell walls. ✿ The frontal lobes are so sensitive to drops in glucose, - Can’t be digested because we don’t in fact, that a change in mental function is one of the have enzymes that can break it down. primary signals of nutrient deficiency. - Cellulose is significant because they are fibers, since the body cannot digest ✿ How does glucose affect our brains? cellulose, dinadaanan niya lahat and it - Carbs come in 3 forms: becomes a cleansing material (parang 1. Starch winawalis yung pathway - it cleanses 2. Sugar our digestive tract). 3. Fiber - The ratio of the sugar and fiber subgroups affect 2. CHITIN how the body and brain respond. - Can be found in the cell wall of fungi. - A high glycemic food (white bread) causes a - Exoskeleton of arthropods (insects). rapid release of glucose into the blood, and then comes the drip. The blood sugar shoots down, STORAGE as well as our attention span and mood. 3. STARCH - On the other hand, oats, grains, and legumes - Most common type of carbohydrates in have slower glucose release enabling a steadier the market. level of attentiveness. - Plants store starch in the vacuole. - Plant based food items such as potato, ✿ For a sustained brain power, opting for a varied diet of rice, bread. nutrient-rich foods is critical. 4. GLYCOGEN - Your choices of food have a direct and - Stored form of glucose (smallest form of long-lasting effect on the most powerful organ in starch). your body. - From animals GEN BIO | 2  - We store in our bodies - Solid at room temperature. - If there is excess carbohydrates in our bloodstream - Glucose most dominant in blood ✿ If you eat 7 cups of rice, it will not consume immediately, the excess will store in our blood stream. If the glucose is too much, it will be absorbed for storage. Where will it be stored? 2. UNSATURATED 1. In our liver - Have 1 or more double bonds. 2. Skeletal muscles - Doesn’t maximize the structure to bond ✿ Continuous glucose in bloodstream will be the cause with atoms. of diabetes mellitus. Insulin in pancreas will detect high - Double bonds make the bond crooked. glucose, there will be instructions to the body parts to get - From animals the glucose. - Liquid at room temperature. ✿ There is no glucose in bloodstream because they will become glycogen that is stored from our liver and skeletal muscle. BIOMOLECULE: LIPIDS LIPIDS - Ex: Oils, Fats, Phospholipids (the head is soluble in water), & Steroids. - Naturally occurring molecules. ✿ What is more healthier? - Characteristic: Known for being insoluble to - Unsaturated fatty acids. If solid fatty acids will go water (hydrophobic). to our system, there will be high chance that we - Can also provide energy (shared / common may get high blood. function to carbohydrates). b. Phospholipids a. Triglycerides (Fats and Oils) - The major component of all cell - 2 components: Glycerol and 3 Fatty membranes. acids - The 2 fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, ★ It is called triglyceride because of but the phosphate, glycerol, and choline the 3 fatty acids. form a hydrophilic head. - The major function of fats is energy storage. c. Steroids - Lipids characterized by a carbon ✿ Anong mas malaki, 1 gram of carbs or 1 gram of skeleton consisting of four fused rings. lipids? - Cholesterol, an important steroid, is a - LIPIDS. Dahil mas maraming bonds ang lipids component in animal cell membranes. than carbohydrates, pag nasira yung bonds, - Cholesterol and cortisol are present in maraming marerelease na energy. parts of the body such as skin, cell, bloodstream. ✿ Is it okay to use lipids rather than carbohydrates? - Hormones that are naturally created in - NO, because it will cause high blood. our body. - Many energy means maraming matitira sa ✿ Testosterone and progesterone are sex hormones katawan natin, that is stored in a bad position develop by our body. They are involved in Secondary such as blood vessels, which can cause Sexual Characteristics (Physical Change). blockage in the bloodstream (aneurysm, stroke – Cardiovascular system). CORTISOL - It is a hormone that releases when there is STRUCTURE OF LIPIDS adrenaline rush (fight or flight) – from adrenal glands. - If you are in constant stress, you release too much cortisol, it can result in anxiety and depression. BIOMOLECULE: PROTEINS PROTEINS - Polymers made up of amino acids. - There are 20 different amino acids: ★ 11 Non Essential Amino Acids - They are important in terms of nutrition. We don't need it in terms 2 types of Fatty Acids: of the food we consume because 1. SATURATED our body can create it. - Have the maximum number of hydrogen ★ 9 Essential Amino Acids atoms possible and no double bonds. - They are essential for our body - Stabilized and no double bonds. because we cannot make them - Carbon backbone attached to at least with our own body. hydrogen atom. - Histidine, isoleucine, leucine, - From plants lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, - The attachment of two hydrogen in threonine, tryptophan & valine. every carbon bond is straight GEN BIO | 3  - A specifically shaped area is in enzymes, where Can proteins provide energy? substrate can bind. - YES! But it’s not ideal for the body to use it as - It's a very specific binding because the active an energy source. site is specifically shaped for the substrate. - If there are no carbohydrates and lipids in our body, proteins will be utilized as energy (this ✿ What happens when substrates bind an enzyme? case will prove that the situation is when there is - An induced fit will happen which means the shortage of food). active site can change its shape even more to - Enzymes are special proteins that assist in perfectly bind that substrate. (catalyze) chemical reactions. Each enzyme has - The enzyme can either build up or break down one specific job, and can carry out that job over the substrate that specifically binds to it, and we and over again. call the resulting item the product. STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS TIP! - Enzymes often end in -ase. - Sugars often end in -ose. ✿ An enzyme has the ability to really speed up reactions. Reactions that could happen on their own, but with the help of enzymes, they can be sped up to make processes effective for life. Example: The enzyme, lactase, has the ability to break lactose into smaller parts that our body can digest. With lactase enzymes, lactose can be broken down quickly and digested. LACTOSE Similarities: - A disaccharide, meaning it contains 2 sugar - They all have amino groups, carboxyl, and molecules bound together. hydrogen. ✿ There are people who doesn’t produce enough Differences: lactase, they are called lactose intolerant. When they - The variable side chain digest milk, it makes them sick because they can’t break the lactose down efficiently without lactase enzymes. ✿ Different proteins have specific functions, including: ✿ Our digestive system uses all kinds of enzymes: a. Structure 1. Lipase - breaks down lipids (fats) ★ Keratin - can be found in the nonliving 2. Amylase - breaks down starch parts of our skin (integumentary 3. Protease - breaks down proteins system). ★ Collagen - found in the living parts of the ✿ Enzymes doesn’t always work along. The essential skin. little helpers are called cofactors (typically metal ions) - Skin - a very good organ for structure. and coenzymes (organic molecules). They may bind to b. Movement the substrate or active site. They help the enzyme in - Actin, Mycinn - can be found in muscles. building up or breaking down substrates into products. c. Defense ✿ Different enzymes have different ideal pH and - Anti-bodies temperature ranges. If an environment changes out of d. Storage an enzyme’s ideal pH or temperature range, the enzyme - Casein - can be found in breast milk and becomes denatured. can help the child or baby grow. DENATURED e. Communication - The shape of the enzyme becomes distorted, it - Hormones can no longer bind to its substrate and can no - Ex: Insulin - can be found in our longer work correctly. pancreas ★ In order for hormones to be BIOMOLECULE: NUCLEIC ACID released, they need a trigger. Blood sugar serves as a trigger NUCLEIC ACID for the pancreas to make - Acids are the molecules that code the genetic insulin. information of organisms. f. Transport - DNA and RNA are polymers made up of - Hemoglobin - where oxygen are monomers called Nucleotides. attached - 5 nucleotides present in: g. Assisting in Chemical Reactions 1. Adenin - Enzymes 2. Thymine ★ Special proteins that assist. 3. Cytosine ★ Can be found in the digestive system 4. Guanine ★ Each enzyme has 1 specific job. 5. Uracil VIEWING ASSIGNMENT : ENZYMES VIEWING ASSIGNMENT : DNA VS RNA (UPDATED) ✿ Most enzymes are proteins. DNA - Deoxyribonucleic Acid ✿ We call enzymes a catalyst because they can be RNA - Ribonucleic Acid used over and over in the reaction. ✿ Enzymes regulate a lot of body processes, and many ✿ Nucleotides of both RNA and DNA have 3 parts: diseases can involve specific enzyme production. 1. Phosphate 2. Sugar ACTIVE SITE ★ DNA - deoxyribose ★ RNA - ribose GEN BIO | 4  3. Base ★ DNA - adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine CELLULAR RESPIRATION PROCESS ★ RNA - adenine, uracil, guanine, cytosine 1. GLYCOLYSIS - Taking place at the cytoplasm. ✿ If I have 8 DNA nucleotides, how many DNA bases do - Doesn’t need oxygen to take place. i have? How many base pairs? - 8 bases and 4 pairs 2. KREBS CYCLE - Takes place in the Mitochondrion. ENERGY TRANSFORMATION - Needs oxygen to take place. ✿ Energy comes from the form of Light energy. At the end of the process, nasa glucose na siya. 3. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN Light energy to Chemical energy - Takes place in the Mitochondrion. - Needs oxygen to take place. CELLULAR RESPIRATION - Its presence is needed for Krebs Cycle. ✿ All of this is takes place in a Eukaryotic Cell. STAGE 1: GLYCOLYSIS GLYCOLYSIS - The breaking down of glucose. - It requires 2 ATP in order to take place. - Glucose + Oxygen ➜ Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy. 1 Glucose and 6 Atmospheric Oxygen are the reactants. 6 Carbon dioxide, 6 Water, and Energy are the products. ○ Energy is what we release in the process. Each Pyruvic Acid has 3 carbons, from the glucose. - We could produce 4 ATP at the process, but we’ll only count 2 because the other 2 is utilized. - Also produces 2 NADH NADH - Coenzyme and an electron DIFFERENCE OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION & carrier. PHOTOSYNTHESIS Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide PHOTOSYNTHESIS NADH will enter the equation as NAD+ - Storage process. pero madagdagan ng electron in the - They transform light energy to chemical energy process from the glucose kasi it needs (potential energy) to be neutral. - In the form of glucose. ○ The electron will come from the 1 hydrogen atom in the glucose. CELLULAR RESPIRATION - Process of release. STAGE 2: KREBS CYCLE OR FERMENTATION - Main product is energy. ✿ There will be 2 conditions after Glycolysis: - Once it is created, it will be temporarily stored 1. KREBS CYCLE again in the form of ATP. - Will only take place if the oxygen is PRESENT. ATP - Provides the energy for activities. Adenosine Triphosphate 2. FERMENTATION ❔ HOW MANY ATP ARE WE GOING TO PRODUCE 1 GLUCOSE? - If the oxygen is absent or there is a shortage. ★ Example: - Hindi active sa physical activities tapos - 1 glucose can produce 38 ATPs. nag-join sa gym tapos pinagod yung It’s not always 38, but it’s the best case sarili mo. Binigla mo yung katawanan scenario. mo kaya di nakapagprovide ang respiratory system mo ng needed CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF ATP oxygen. ✿ Pag nagbigay ng energy ang ATP, magiging ADP + P. ADP - Phosphate group na na-detach in the FERMENTATION process. - Happens in the cytoplasm ✿ The energy is stored in the bond between the 2nd - Takes place if Pyruvate is building up faster than and 3rd group of phosphate. it can be metabolized. - Then end the process. GEN BIO | 5 ✿ In other organisms, imbes na Lactic Acid ang pinoproduce, Acetic Acid (suka) ang pinoproduce. ✿ Effect of Lactic Acid: If it is accumulated, it can cause body pain and muscle soreness or swelling. KREBS CYCLE: ✿ Before Krebs Cycle, there is a Pre-Krebs Cycle, called Pyruvate Oxidation. PRE-KREBS CYCLE - Produces 2 ATPs and 2 NADH. - Happens in the inner cell membrane. (isaw) ✿ The 10 NADH came from all the previous processes, while the 2 FADH2 came from the Krebs Cycle. ✿ Both the 10 NADH and the 2 FADH2 will be transferred to the protein channels. (electron carrier) The protons are attracted to the electrons kaya sinusundan niya yung electrons. But since there ✿ The 2 Pyruvate Acids goes to the process of is an electron carrier, lalabas yung protons. oxidation. Pagpapasapasahan yung electrons then Then donates the electrons to the carbon irereceive ng oxygen kaya magiging 6H2O. dioxide. Yung protons na lumabas ay papasok ulit pero ✿ The 2 Acetyl Coenzyme has 2 carbons each. sa ATP synthase na, then maggegenerate sila ng energy, then will harness 34 ATPs. KREBS CYCLE - Also known as the Citric Acid Cycle. - In-depth version of the equation. PHOTOSYNTHESIS PHOTOSYNTHESIS - It is the process by which photosynthetic organisms (like plants) capture light and use it to convert water and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen. - Example: Algae, Cyanobacteria 2 Acetyl CoA = Output of the Pre-Krebs Cycle PHOTOSYNTHESIS FORMULA Oxaloacetic Acid = Molecule composed of 4 carbons. 2 Citric Acids = Has 6 carbons; 4 came from the Oxaloacetic Acid. ❔ HOW DOES PHOTOSYNTHESIS WORK? - Plants have light capturing molecules, called pigments that help them do this. One pigment that plants use for photosynthesis is called chlorophyll, ✿ The 2 Oxaloacetic Acid will react to the 2 Acetyl CoA that is found in the chloroplast of plant then repeats the Pre-Krebs Cycle. cells, which is not present in animal cells. STAGE 3: ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN CHLOROPHYLL - It is good at absorbing red and blue light, but not so ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN much green light, which they reflect. - Known as the The Real ATP Maker This is why many plants appear green to our eyes. Aside from chlorophyll, there are more pigments like carotenes (orange), anthocyanins (purple), and xanthophyll (yellow), which explains why green is not the only color we see in plants. 2 REACTIONS ✿ There are two major reactions that occur in the chloroplast that make up photosynthesis. 1. LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION - It occurs in the thylakoids in the chloroplast. THYLAKOIDS - Membrane-bound compartments inside chloroplasts. GEN BIO | 6  A stack of thylakoids is called a granum 3. REGENERATION (plural: grana). - One G3P is exported while the remaining five “If the plants are green, the thylakoids G3P molecules remain in the cycle and are are green.” used to regenerate RuBP, which enables the ❔ WHAT HAPPENS DURING THE LDR? - Light is converted through a complex process system to prepare for more CO2 to be fixed. Three more molecules of ATP are used in these regeneration reactions. that involves multiple “photosystems” into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH). Oxygen is made in the LDR. ○ Can be used by plants for cellular respiration. - Water (H2O) is split into electrons, protons, and oxygen, which is another product of this reaction. Bibitbitin ng NADPH ang electrons SUMMARY papuntang next process. ✿ Carbon dioxide is fixed by changing the inorganic carbon dioxide into a more usable organic form with the help of a major enzyme called RuBisCO. ✿ The ATP from the light dependent reaction helps supply energy. ✿ The NADPH from the light dependent reaction supplies reducing power; it helps add high energy electrons to this process. ✿ In a very complex series of pathways, the fixed carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH are used to make a product that ultimately can be converted into glucose. ✿ During the Light Dependent Reaction, water and light were used, and oxygen was produced. 2. LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION - It is also known as the “Calvin Cycle”, or “Dark Reaction”, although it doesn’t happen in the dark. - It needs items from the light dependent reaction so they both happen at the same time. - It happens in the stroma inside the chloroplast. STROMA - The fluid outside of the thylakoids, inside the chloroplasts. ✿ Kapag mainit, cinoclose ng pants (cactus) ang stomata kaya di sila nakakakuha ng carbon dioxide during daylight, kaya sa gabi sila kumukuha. ❔ WHAT HAPPENS DURING THE LIR? 1. FIXATION - The process by which inorganic carbon (CO2) from the atmosphere is assimilated into living organisms and converted into organic compounds (3- phosphoglyceric acid or 3-PGA). ✿ 1 Calvin cycle, requires 3 co2. 3 co2 ang aayusin ng RuBP. 2. REDUCTION - ATP and NADPH are used to convert the six molecules of 3-PGA into six molecules of a chemical called glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). ✿ 6 3-PGA = 6 G3P ✿ Each 3-PGA (yung bilog) requires an ATP and NADPH each. GEN BIO | 7