GEC1020 Quiz 2 Study Notes PDF

Week 7 - Class and Inequality Reading: Jack - (No) Harm in Asking Jack’s study explores how class and cultural capital shape students' academic engagement at an elite university. Through interviews with 89 undergraduates, Jack identifies the different ways students from varying class background...

Week 7 - Class and Inequality Reading: Jack - (No) Harm in Asking Jack’s study explores how class and cultural capital shape students' academic engagement at an elite university. Through interviews with 89 undergraduates, Jack identifies the different ways students from varying class backgrounds engage authority figures, demonstrating that these differences are not strictly determined by family background alone. His analysis focuses on three groups: - Middle Class - Privileged Poor (lower-income students who attended resource-rich, elite high schools) - Doubly Disadvantaged (lower-income students who attended under-resourced local schools) Jack highlights how institutional practices can perpetuate class disparities by favouring students already familiar with elite cultural norms. Class and Cultural Capital in Academic Engagement ○ Jack draws on Bourdieu’s theory of cultural capital (ie. states that cultural resources can significantly impact social mobility and success) to show how different groups of students approach interactions with authority figures, such as professors, in varied ways. ○ Middle-Class Students: They are generally at ease, proactive, and view authority figures as allies in their academic journey. ○ Privileged Poor: Though economically disadvantaged, they received substantial pre college exposure to elite norms, fostering confidence similar to that of middle-class students in engaging with authority figures. ○ Doubly Disadvantaged: These students often lack confidence in approaching professors, feeling unease and sometimes outright resistance to engagement due to unfamiliarity with elite norms and a cultural background that does not emphasise such proactive academic engagement. Types of Capital and Institutional Biases ○ Economic Capital: Income and wealth disparities impact access to quality pre college education, which plays a crucial role in academic success at the university level. ○ Cultural Capital: Privileged poor students possess knowledge and habits that align with university expectations, owing to their exposure in elite high schools, while doubly disadvantaged students lack this. ○ Social Capital: Elite students and privileged poor students often bring established networks and ease in building connections with authority figures, which doubly disadvantaged students struggle to replicate. Impact of Institutional Expectations and Cultural Mismatch ○ Jack argues that elite universities uphold norms of independence and proactive engagement that can disadvantage working-class students unfamiliar with these practices. The "hidden curriculum" of universities often expects students to take the initiative in seeking support, which can alienate doubly disadvantaged students and make them feel like outsiders. ○ This alienation creates a cultural mismatch, reinforcing inequalities by limiting the access doubly disadvantaged students have to institutional resources, impacting their academic experiences and long-term opportunities. Intersection of Class and Institutional Practices ○ Institutional expectations, like mandatory office hours or proactive engagement,  favour students with middle-class and privileged poor backgrounds, as these students see faculty as partners rather than distant authority figures. ○ Middle-class and privileged poor students feel comfortable advocating for themselves, perceiving professors as facilitators in their academic journeys. This engagement opens up additional resources and support that doubly disadvantaged students are less likely to access, perpetuating class-based inequalities even within institutions that are ostensibly meritocratic. Implications and Recommendations for Policy ○ Jack suggests that elite universities should reassess their engagement expectations and cultural norms to better support culturally diverse student populations. This might include pre-term orientations, stronger advising structures, and policies that encourage more inclusive, interdependent norms rather than purely independent approaches. ○ Beyond individual programs, Jack calls for structural changes in public education to provide lower-income students with early exposure to academic and social skills needed for elite settings, potentially lessening the cultural shock when they enter higher education. Understanding Class ○ Class: A social hierarchy based on power relations, particularly relating to wealth, means of production, and prestige. Results in an unequal distribution of resources. ○ Bourgeoisie: The class owning the means of production. ○ Proletariat: Individuals who do not own means of production and sell their labour. ○ Middle Class: Generally part of the proletariat but possess relatively more wealth and prestige. Types of Capital ○ Economic Capital: Income and wealth owned by an individual. ○ Social Capital: Access to resources through networks and social connections ("who you know"). ○ Cultural Capital: Knowledge, behaviours, and tastes that enable individuals to access resources (eg. Wine tasting as a form of cultural capital). ○ Interrelation: How these forms of capital often reinforce each other, creating advantages for individuals and groups with more capital. ○ Institutional Influence: Institutions may privilege those with higher forms of capital through subtle behavioural expectations eg. Jack’s article highlights how capital transfer occurs through institutions and intergenerationally, sustaining class stratification Economic Inequality: Income vs Wealth ○ Income: Earnings from employment. ○ Wealth: Total assets (including properties and stocks) owned, minus debts.  Wealth often provides a more comprehensive measure of inequality as it incorporates assets beyond immediate income. ○ Income Inequality: The top 1% of earners command significantly higher incomes than the bottom 50%. ○ Wealth Inequality: For the wealthy, income is a minor aspect; assets and inherited wealth dominate. Nearly 46% of global wealth is controlled by the top 1%. Wealth inequality has been on the rise since the 1970s, further exacerbated by the pandemic. Global and Local Inequality ○ Global Disparities: Inequality between countries is often a legacy of colonialism. ○ Internal Disparities: Refers to the presence of inequalities within a single country or society, where different groups or regions experience unequal access to resources, opportunities, or social mobility inequalities are not just about income or wealth but can also involve disparities in education, healthcare, infrastructure, and social status concept of “geographic imaginary”: refers to the stereotypes, perceptions, or assumptions about certain regions or groups within a country, whereby these imagined ideas can influence how people view different places and the people who live there, often creating or reinforcing inequalities. ○ Structural Causes: Economic inequality is linked to systemic issues in capitalism and colonial history. Capitalism often drives inequality through its focus on profit and competition, where wealth tends to accumulate with those who already have capital. This system rewards those who control resources, own businesses, or invest in assets, while many workers earn only enough to cover basic needs, leading to significant income and wealth gaps over time. Colonial history laid the foundations for modern economic inequality by forcibly extracting resources and wealth from colonised regions to benefit colonial powers. Colonisation created global economic systems that privileged European and Western nations, often at the expense of local populations. This legacy of exploitation persists, as formerly colonised countries and marginalised groups within societies continue to face structural disadvantages in accessing resources, opportunities, and economic power. Poverty is not a reflection of individual morality but is a result of political and economic structures. Intersectionality ○ Definition: A framework to analyse how various social categories (e.g., class, race, gender) interact to shape individual experiences. ○ Application:  Understanding that multiple forms of oppression or privilege intersect to impact a person's life uniquely. eg. In the US, income, race, and gender intersect in diverse ways, impacting socioeconomic outcomes). ○ Case Study (Jack’s research): At a renowned university, many working-class students were Black and Latinx, facing classism intertwined with racism. Work-study programmes often relegated them to menial jobs, reinforcing racist stereotypes. Week 8 - Gender and Sexuality Reading: Martin - The Egg and the Sperm Martin’s article critiques the language and metaphors used in scientific descriptions of reproductive biology, revealing how gender stereotypes shape the portrayal of biological processes. Cultural Influence on Science: ○ Martin argues that scientific narratives are not free of cultural bias; instead, they are influenced by societal beliefs, particularly gender stereotypes. The portrayal of eggs and sperm often reflects stereotypical male and female roles, with sperm described as active and aggressive and eggs as passive. ○ Examples in Textbooks: Sperm are described as having “missions” and are portrayed as “heroes” in a “perilous journey,” while eggs are depicted as passive, “waiting” to be “rescued” by sperm. This reflects stereotypical notions of men as active and women as passive. Gendered Language in Biological Processes: ○ The process of spermatogenesis (production of sperm) is celebrated in scientific literature as “remarkable” and “astonishing,” while menstruation is described negatively, using terms like “failure” and “degeneration.” ○ Even ovulation is portrayed unfavourably compared to sperm production, reinforcing a view of female reproductive biology as inferior and “wasteful.” Alternative Perspectives and Recommendations: ○ Martin suggests that scientists could adopt more neutral language that doesn’t rely on stereotypes. For instance, describing both ovum and sperm production as homologous processes would emphasise the value of both rather than elevating one over the other. ○ She also highlights that scientific advancements revealing the egg’s active role in “catching” sperm are often overshadowed by the persistence of passive language, demonstrating how entrenched cultural norms are in science. Implications of Gender Bias in Science: ○ By embedding gender stereotypes within scientific descriptions, the language used in textbooks teaches cultural values under the guise of biology, which may reinforce gender inequalities. ○ Martin’s critique ultimately calls for critical reflection on scientific language to ensure it does not perpetuate outdated and harmful views of gender. Through this analysis, Martin reveals the hidden cultural assumptions within scientific narratives, urging a reassessment of how scientific language can influence societal views on gender. Her work underscores the importance of deconstructing these stereotypes to foster a more egalitarian view of biology and gender. Reading: Wekker - What’s Identity Got to Do with It Wekker examines the cultural and social construction of identity, sexuality, and gender through the lens of the mati work in Suriname. Her study challenges Western notions of fixed sexual identities, such as homosexuality, and offers an alternative framework where sexuality is viewed as behaviour rather than identity. Cultural Construction of Sexuality: ○ In Western contexts, sexuality often equates to identity (e.g., being “gay” or “straight”), but the mati practice in Suriname does not follow this paradigm. ○ Mati refers to women engaging in sexual relationships with both men and women,  often in an overlapping manner. Unlike Western models, these relationships are behaviourally defined and not tied to a fixed sexual identity. Intersection of Gender and Power: ○ The mati work highlights how Surinamese working-class women maintain sexual autonomy and resist middle-class Western norms of sexuality, marriage, and motherhood. ○ The motto “I am a gold coin” expresses these women’s self-worth and resilience, emphasising autonomy over adhering to Western respectability. Agency and Multiplicitous Identity: ○ Wekker argues that identity in Suriname is fluid and multiplicitous, shaped by cultural, spiritual, and historical contexts. The mati’s identity can be seen as having multiple components, blending roles that challenge fixed identities imposed by Western thought. ○ By focusing on the mati work, Wekker underscores that agency in sexuality and gender exists outside the binary frameworks of “heterosexual” and “homosexual.” Impact of Intersectionality and Power Dynamics: ○ The structure of Surinamese society allows for a dual sexual system, where same-gender relationships exist alongside opposite-gender ones, each with unique social and economic dynamics. ○ Economic dependence on men creates specific power relations within heterosexual relationships, while relationships between mati women are characterised by greater emotional and financial reciprocity. Wekker’s study demonstrates that Western concepts of identity, particularly in sexuality, are not universal. Instead, they reflect the specific socio-cultural and economic conditions in which they were formed, whereas the mati work exemplifies an alternative, culturally embedded understanding of sexual and social relationships. Definitions of Key Concepts ○ Sex: Refers to anatomical features such as reproductive organs and chromosomes. Often misrepresented as a strict male/female binary. Intersex: Individuals born with anatomy that does not fit typical male or female categories. ○ Gender: Cultural expectations surrounding behaviour, roles, and thoughts based on sex. Gender identity: One’s internal sense of being male, female, both, or neither. Gender expression: How gender is outwardly shown (e.g., clothing, mannerisms). Terms: Cisgender: Aligns with the sex assigned at birth. Transgender: Does not align with assigned sex. Non-binary: Exists outside the man/woman categories. ○ Sexuality: Encompasses desires, beliefs, and behaviours relating to intimacy, attraction, and pleasure. Sexual orientation: Physical, emotional, or romantic attraction to others. Misrepresented as a heterosexual/homosexual binary. LGBTQ+: Represents a variety of marginalised sexual and gender identities.  Queer: Once derogatory, now reclaimed by some as a broad term for non-heterosexual, non-cisgender identities. Relationship Between Gender and Sexuality ○ Concepts of gender and sexuality are mutually influential. ○ Hegemonic masculinity and femininity are often linked to heterosexual norms. ○ Ideas of "normal" sexuality reinforce gender roles. Analysing Gender ○ Cultural/Social Construct: Gender is not biologically inherent but rather shaped by social interactions and cultural agreements. ○ Context-Specific Gender Constructions: Gender roles differ across cultures and are learned from a young age. Example: Margaret Mead’s study in Papua New Guinea highlighted distinct gender norms in three ethnic groups. ○ Cultural Gender Categories: Some cultures recognise more than two genders. Example: The Bugis of Indonesia with five gender categories: Makkunrai (female-women), Oroané (male-men), Calalai’ (biological females with male roles), Calabai’ (biological males with female roles), and Bissu (people embodying both male and female qualities). Gender and Power Dynamics ○ Gender Stratification: Power imbalance along gender lines affecting norms, labour division, authority, and laws. ○ Patriarchy: A system where men hold primary power, with women and non-cisgender individuals often marginalised. Examples include militaries and other male-dominated institutions. ○ Economic Inequality: Women globally earn approximately 37% less than men. Transgender and non-binary individuals face higher levels of discrimination and violence. ○ Egalitarian Societies: all individuals are considered equal and have equal access to resources, opportunities, and rights. In such societies, there is minimal or no hierarchy in terms of wealth, power, or social status. This often means that resources and responsibilities are shared, and there is an emphasis on collective well-being rather than individual accumulation of wealth or power. Some societies, like Vanatinai in Papua New Guinea, exhibit minimal gender stratification, challenging the universality of patriarchy. Analysing Sexuality ○ Cultural Construction of Sexuality: Ideas about sexuality and categories of sexual identity vary across cultures. Example: Wekker’s research on the Winti religion in Suriname.  ○ Restrictions on Sexuality: Institutions such as kinship systems, religion, medical systems, and laws regulate sexuality. ○ Heteronormativity: The privileging of heterosexuality as the norm, as seen in customs like school dances that assume heterosexual pairing. Intersectionality in Gender and Sexuality ○ Intersecting Factors: Gender, race, sexual orientation, and class intersect to shape how individuals experience restrictions on sexuality. Example: In colonial Indonesia, laws and norms imposed different restrictions on interactions and relationships between Dutch and Indonesian individuals based on gender and social class. Activism and Advocacy ○ Global Movements: Many activists advocate for the rights and representation of women and the LGBTQ+ community. ○ Focus on Intersectionality: These movements aim to address a variety of experiences and forms of discrimination, recognising the impact of multiple overlapping identities. Week 9 - Ethnicity and Race (Part 1) Reading: Dennison - The Logic of Recognition Dennison’s study examines the Osage Nation’s citizenship reform and its implications for sovereignty within the context of settler colonialism in the United States. By focusing on the reform process of 2004–2006, she highlights how the logic of recognition and bodily-based citizenship criteria, such as blood quantum, complicate Indigenous identity and governance. Settler Colonial Logic and Elimination: ○ The U.S. government’s logic of elimination displaced Indigenous peoples from their lands, historically through physical violence and legal frameworks like the Doctrine of Discovery. ○ The Osage Nation’s experiences exemplify how settler colonialism uses bodily identification (blood quantum) to control and limit Indigenous identity and territorial claims. Recognition and Self-Determination: ○ U.S. recognition policies have long manipulated Indigenous governance by enforcing specific identity markers, like blood quantum and cultural practices, as criteria for citizenship. ○ The Osage’s reform allowed them to choose lineal descent over blood quantum as a basis for citizenship, seeking a more inclusive framework. However, this shift also alienates many residents within Osage territory who lack official Osage status, complicating local governance and rights. The Role of Culture in Sovereignty: ○ In the context of the Osage Nation’s sovereignty (their self-governance and autonomy as an Indigenous nation), culture plays a significant role. The Osage reform debate highlighted that many Osage leaders believe that their sovereignty—their right to govern themselves—is deeply connected to their unique cultural practices like their language, ceremonies, and traditions. These practices affirm the Osage identity and differentiate them from other groups, strengthening their sense of nationhood. ○ However, there is a potential downside to this approach. If sovereignty is defined primarily through fixed cultural practices, it can risk creating a static, unchanging image of Osage culture. Culture naturally evolves over time, and newer generations might adopt different practices or ways of expressing their identity. By tying sovereignty too closely to specific traditional markers, the Osage Nation might unintentionally limit the flexibility of its identity and restrict how future generations define what it means to be Osage. Dennison argues that this focus on traditional practices can be restrictive because it assumes that authentic Osage identity is only rooted in certain historical practices. This can make it harder for the Osage Nation to adapt its identity in ways that might be necessary for survival or relevance in changing social, political, or economic contexts. Therefore, linking sovereignty to fixed cultural markers might preserve tradition but could also inadvertently constrain the Osage identity’s ability to evolve. Dennison’s work illustrates how the U.S. government’s recognition process binds Indigenous nations to bodily and cultural identifiers, limiting sovereignty by enforcing strict definitions of “authenticity” and identity. The Osage Nation’s reform reflects ongoing challenges in reconciling internal self-determination with the constraints imposed by settler colonial recognition. Reading: Choi - A Landscape of Travel Choi’s ethnography explores the commodification of ethnicity through tourism in rural ethnic villages in China, focusing on Upper Jidao and Ping’an. Her study reveals how ethnic identity is manipulated and “packaged” to suit tourist expectations and national modernisation goals, leading to both economic opportunities and cultural consequences for local residents. Visuality and the Politics of Appearance: ○ Choi argues that ethnic tourism is deeply rooted in visual displays that construct a “modern” Chinese identity by presenting ethnic minorities as exotic others. ○ Villages like Ping’an and Upper Jidao remodel their appearances, adopting elements of “Chinese Style Tourism” (architecture, performances, costumes) to align with state-sanctioned images of ethnic diversity. Commodification of Ethnic Identity: ○ Ethnic villagers become performers of their own identity, participating in “theme park” tourism where daily life is stylised to meet tourists’ expectations of “authentic” rural and ethnic experiences. ○ The work of “minority models,” who pose in traditional costumes, exemplifies how ethnicity is commercialised, creating economic benefits yet fostering a rigid image of ethnic minorities as backward and rural. Tourism and Internal Orientalism: ○ Choi describes how Han Chinese tourists engage in “internal orientalism”, viewing ethnic minorities through stereotypes of exoticism and primitiveness. ○ These interactions reinforce a hierarchical structure within China, positioning Han Chinese as modern observers while minority villagers perform a version of their culture that conforms to tourist and state expectations. Choi’s analysis reveals how ethnic tourism in China turns minority identity into a commodity, shaping perceptions of rural ethnic minorities as timeless, static, and exotic. This commodification serves both local economic goals and the state’s desire for a unified, multicultural image, but it also risks reducing ethnic identity to a consumable performance, limiting the fluidity and authenticity of local culture. Key Concepts: Ethnicity vs. Race ○ Race: A classification system based on physical traits, often incorrectly assumed to have a biological basis. Recognised today as a cultural construct with roots in European colonialism. ○ Ethnicity: Involves a sense of historical, cultural, and sometimes ancestral connection to a specific group. Typically involves shared cultural practices and beliefs, and is also a cultural construct. ○ Distinguishing Race from Ethnicity: Race tends to focus on perceived biological differences, while ethnicity relates to shared cultural and social bonds. In some contexts, these terms may overlap or be used interchangeably, yet they serve distinct functions in social classification. Characteristics of Ethnicity ○ Relational and Contextual Nature: Ethnicity is defined by comparison and in relation to other groups. It doesn’t exist in isolation and depends on the presence of others.  Example: West Indians in the UK. This category includes multiple Caribbean ethnicities, yet is simplified in a British context to encompass a broad group identity. ○ Situational Negotiation of Identity: Individuals may shift their ethnic identification depending on social context. Ethnic identity can be more or less significant depending on specific social settings or interactions. eg. A person might emphasise their ethnic identity in a family gathering or cultural event where shared traditions and heritage are important. In a professional setting where they are in the minority, they might choose to downplay aspects of their ethnic identity to blend in or avoid drawing attention to their differences. ○ Criteria for Ethnic Identity: Ethnicity is often self-defined (emic), yet sometimes imposed by external authorities. State Role: Governments may regulate ethnic categorisations, which can lead to debates around authenticity and recognition, such as the tribal recognition of Native American tribes in the U.S., where only 574 tribes are federally recognised, conferring certain rights. (Re)Construction of Ethnic Identities ○ Primordial vs. Constructed Views: Primordialism suggests ethnicity is ancient and unchanging, often cited by outsiders to simplify complex political and social issues. natural or biological aspect of people’s identity that doesn’t change over time Primordialism is often used by outsiders to simplify or “essentialise” complex ethnic identities, reducing them to fixed categories. This makes it easier to explain conflicts or group differences as natural or inevitable, without considering historical or social complexities. Example: In areas with ethnic conflict, people might say "those groups have always been enemies," implying that such divisions are timeless and unavoidable. Constructivism views ethnicity as constantly evolving and shaped by historical and social forces. ethnicity is not a permanent, inherited trait but something that adapts based on how people and communities interact with the world around them (can evolve, influenced by factors like migration, colonialism, state policies, or cultural shifts) Example: A group’s ethnic identity might shift or become more pronounced when they face discrimination, or might evolve through interactions with other groups or in response to globalisation. ○ Factors Driving (Re)Construction of Ethnic Identity: Political Domination: Ethnic categories can be shaped or enforced by colonial or political powers, as seen in Hutu and Tutsi identities in Rwanda, which were defined and stratified by Belgian colonial rulers.  Discrimination: Ethnic identities may shift to avoid discrimination; for example, some Sami people in Norway began identifying as Norwegian. Political Recognition: Official recognition can grant legal and political rights, such as indigenous land rights for groups in Cambodia. Migration: Migration leads to the formation of new ethnic communities and identities, as seen in the Copperbelt in Zambia. Commodification: Ethnicity can be commodified in the form of ethnic theme parks, restaurants, and products (e.g., handicrafts). This commercialisation can raise issues of authenticity and potentially benefit either the ethnic group or outsiders. Nationalism and Ethnicity ○ Nationalism: The drive to create or sustain a nation-state based on shared culture, ancestry, or purpose. Nationalism establishes a sense of belonging but can also create in-group vs. out-group dynamics based on ethnicity or race. In extreme cases, it may lead to violence against minorities, as illustrated by incidents of white nationalist terrorism in the U.S., Europe, and New Zealand. Week 10 - Ethnicity and Race (Part 2) Reading: Rocha & Yeoh - Hierarchies of Mixedness Rocha and Yeoh explore how Eurasian identity in Singapore serves as a case study for understanding mixed-race racisms and how hierarchies of race, class, and phenotype intersect to shape belonging and identity. CMIO Framework and Mixed Identity: ○ Singapore’s CMIO (Chinese, Malay, Indian, Other) system simplifies racial categorisation, often marginalising those with mixed heritage by relegating them to the “Other” category. ○ To fit within the CMIO framework, the Eurasian community emphasises specific markers (Portuguese heritage, Catholicism, and Kristang language) to construct a distinct identity, which overlooks the diversity within Eurasian experiences. Intra-Community Hierarchies and "New Racisms": ○ Within the Eurasian community, historical divisions such as “Upper Ten” (British-descended Eurasians) and “Lower Six” (darker-skinned, Portuguese-descended Eurasians) persist, maintaining class and racial stratifications even among those classified as Eurasian. ○ The persistence of these hierarchies reflects “new racisms,” where mixed-race individuals experience discrimination within their own ethnic communities based on socio-economic and phenotypic differences. Politics of Recognition and Misrecognition: ○ Many Eurasians in Singapore experience misrecognition, either being mistaken for other CMIO groups or foreigners due to their mixed appearance. ○ This misrecognition illustrates how racial identities are both ascribed by societal perceptions and shaped by the racialised structure imposed by the state. Performing and Negotiating Identity: ○ Eurasians in Singapore negotiate their identity through the state-mandated categories, resulting in a complicated relationship between personal identity and official recognition. ○ Rocha and Yeoh argue that this negotiation underscores the limitations of Singapore’s multiracial policy, which restricts mixed-race groups to narrow identities and struggles to accommodate the nuances of hybridity. Rocha and Yeoh’s work highlights how racial hierarchies rooted in colonial histories continue to shape mixed-race experiences in Singapore, revealing the complex interactions between state frameworks, personal identities, and the politics of belonging. Reading: Garth - There is No Race in Cuba Garth investigates Cuba’s claim of being a post-racial society and how racial logics persist through the concept of nivel de cultura (level of culture), revealing enduring forms of anti-Blackness and class-based racialisation. Myth of Racial Democracy: ○ Many Cubans claim “there is no race” in Cuba, reflecting the national myth of racial democracy that suggests high racial mixing has eliminated racism. ○ Despite this, Garth shows that racialised discrimination endures, masked by ideas of “level of culture” rather than explicit references to race. Nivel de Cultura as Racialised Class Marker: ○ Nivel de cultura represents a Cuban construct linking social status to education, manners, and sophistication, often associating lighter skin with higher cultural  levels. ○ This concept functions as a form of cultural racism, where Black and low-income Cubans are frequently deemed lower in “level of culture,” reinforcing stereotypes about Blackness and criminality. Cuban Anti-Blackness and Whiteness Aspiration: ○ Anti-Blackness in Cuba is linked to an aspirational whiteness, where Blackness is systematically marginalised while aspects of Black culture are selectively celebrated. ○ The Revolution’s official anti-racism stance did not eliminate racial hierarchy; rather, it encouraged Cubans to embrace “Cubanness,” implicitly tied to whiteness, thus continuing the colonial project of whitening. Transnational Dimensions of Anti-Blackness: ○ Garth connects Cuban racial logics to broader transnational anti-Black narratives that originated in colonial histories, demonstrating how concepts like nivel de cultura are informed by a global legacy of racial capitalism. Garth’s study reveals that, despite Cuba’s official narrative, racialised hierarchies remain entrenched, with cultural norms reinforcing distinctions of class and race in ways that perpetuate anti-Blackness under the guise of cultural differences. This work challenges the notion of Cuba as a post-racial society by illustrating how deep-rooted racial biases continue to shape daily interactions and social expectations. Concept of Race ○ Race: A classification system based on physical characteristics, often believed (incorrectly) to reflect biological divisions. ○ Cultural Construct: The idea of race as a cultural construct means that race is not a biologically grounded or scientifically valid way to classify human beings. Studies have shown that genetic diversity within any racial group (like “Black” or “White”) is often greater than the genetic differences between racial groups. In other words, two people from the same racial group can be more genetically different from each other than from someone of a different racial group. This reveals that race is not based on biological fact but is instead a social and cultural concept. Example: The U.S. recognises categories like White, Black, Asian, etc., though categorisations vary significantly across cultures, such as in Brazil where racial categories are based on appearance. Historical Development of Race ○ Origins: Race as a concept emerged around the 15th century, deeply tied to European colonialism. It was used to justify hierarchical divisions, positioning some races as “superior” and others as “inferior,” serving as a rationale for colonialism, the transatlantic slave trade, and Indigenous genocide. ○ Colonial Influence: Colonial histories and stereotypes remain embedded in racial categorisations today. ○ Racialisation: The process of ascribing racial identities, often imposed by the state or through social norms. These categories evolve over time, adapting to social and political shifts (e.g., Middle Eastern identities in the U.S. post-9/11).  Racism ○ Definition: Racism operates by ranking people as superior or inferior based on race, impacting access to power, resources, and opportunities. Functions on both interpersonal and structural levels. ○ Types of Racism: Interpersonal Racism: Everyday interactions, including microaggressions (subtle verbal or behavioural slights that convey negative racial messages). Structural Racism: Racial inequality embedded in institutions, laws, and norms across various domains (e.g., housing, healthcare, education). The “birdcage” metaphor illustrates how interconnected forms of discrimination limit opportunity and freedom. when these forms of discrimination intersect and build on each other, they create a structure that limits opportunities, access, and freedom, much like the bars of a birdcage ○ Colorblindness: An approach suggesting that ignoring race will solve racism. However, this perspective often allows racial inequalities to persist by ignoring systemic issues. Example: Garth’s research on Cuba highlights how “colorblind” ideologies can mask continued racial hierarchies rooted in colonialism. Structural Racism ○ Examples: Discriminatory practices in areas like employment, housing, healthcare, and political representation maintain racial inequalities. ○ Case Study: A documentary on a Pennsylvania steel mill town highlights structural racism through job discrimination, housing segregation, and unequal healthcare access. These interlocking “wires” create a systemic “cage” of disadvantage. Racial Privilege ○ Privilege and Oppression: Privilege refers to unearned societal advantages experienced by members of a dominant racial or ethnic group. Racial privilege ranges from overt to subtle and is often invisible to those who benefit from it. ○ White Privilege: Concept developed in the U.S. by Peggy McIntosh in her essay “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack,” where examples include: Majority of media representation and historical narratives feature people of one’s own race. The expectation to not have one’s behaviour stereotyped by race. ○ Chinese Privilege (in Singapore): Conversations are ongoing about the applicability of racial privilege concepts in Singapore’s multiracial context, where Chinese privilege may manifest in ways distinct from Western white privilege. Antiracist Activism ○ Antiracism: Opposes racism by working toward systemic change.  Example: The Black Lives Matter movement, originating in the U.S. in 2013, has grown globally to challenge racial injustices, especially in policing. Week 12 - Environment Reading: Chao - In the Shadow of the Palm Chao examines the impact of large-scale oil palm plantations on the Marind people of West Papua, particularly in terms of environmental and cultural consequences. She analyses how the monoculture of oil palm disrupts traditional Marind understandings of multispecies kinship and relationships with the forest. Multispecies Cosmology and Interspecies Relations: ○ The Marind view their forests as a network of beings with whom they share kinship, termed amai (grandparent species). This includes plants, animals, and other non-human entities, each considered a “person” with agency. ○ Oil palm, as an invasive species introduced for commercial gain, disrupts this network by dominating the landscape and draining resources, leading the Marind to perceive it as a hostile, “unloving” presence. Capitalism and Environmental Exploitation: ○ Chao argues that the rapid spread of oil palm in Merauke reflects a capitalist view of nature as a resource for exploitation, contrasting with Marind values of reciprocity and care. Oil palm does not engage in the “reciprocal care” that the Marind traditionally observes with forest beings. ○ The plantation model aligns with internal colonialism, where Indonesia’s government and corporations exploit the Marind’s land for palm oil production, disregarding local ecology and cultural practices. Environmental Injustice and Cultural Erosion: ○ For the Marind, oil palm symbolises violence: it “eats” the land and kills off other species, leading to the displacement of indigenous communities and degradation of their cultural practices. ○ The state-backed plantations have brought economic and environmental harm to the Marind, eroding their connection to the forest and threatening their survival by removing natural resources essential to their way of life. Chao’s work sheds light on how the spread of oil palm, driven by capitalist interests, endangers the ecological and cultural systems of the Marind, exposing the broader implications of monoculture and corporate exploitation on indigenous communities. Reading: Mehta - Crab Antics Mehtta’s ethnography investigates the social and environmental dynamics of crab collecting in India’s Sundarbans, where accusations of greed against crab collectors reflect deeper economic and power hierarchies influenced by environmental policies and global trade. Political Economy of Accusations: ○ As crab collectors’ earnings increased due to rising demand from Chinese markets, local elites and the Forest Department began accusing them of greed and environmental harm. This moral judgement is shaped by envy from established village hierarchies, who feel threatened by the crab collectors’ relative economic improvement. ○ The accusations serve as a social control mechanism that reinforces the existing hierarchy, limiting aspirations among crab collectors and maintaining their marginalised status. Environmental (In)justice and Scapegoating: ○ Conservationists and the Forest Department often blame crab collectors for environmental degradation, ignoring larger economic and political forces driving  the ecological crisis, such as climate change and commercial fishing interests. ○ Mehtta argues that such scapegoating reflects a neoliberal tendency to place responsibility on individuals rather than addressing structural issues, thereby displacing blame onto marginalised groups instead of challenging those with greater environmental impact. Impact of Globalisation on Local Livelihoods: ○ The global crab market’s influence on local livelihoods illustrates how international demand can affect subsistence economies, often causing disruptions in local moral economies and community relationships. ○ Crab collectors view their work as fulfilling legitimate needs, not greed, and interpret the accusations as attempts to suppress their economic mobility. Mehtta’s study highlights the complex moral and political dimensions of environmental regulation in the Sundarbans, where conservation policies and local power dynamics intersect to disadvantage vulnerable communities, revealing how global capitalism shapes local livelihoods and environmental narratives. Concepts of Environment and Nature ○ What is the Environment? Definitions vary and are often context-specific. Determining what “counts” as nature or the environment often reflects cultural biases and the values of those in power. ○ Agency in the Environment: Some cultures attribute agency or personhood to non-human entities, including animals, plants, and landscapes. Example: Chao’s research discusses how agency is understood in specific cultural contexts, showing how humans interact with their surroundings based on attributed personhood. ○ Morality and Environmental Relations: Moral beliefs influence how people interact with nature. Example: The forest goddess Bonbibi, worshipped by various religious groups in the Sundarbans, advocates only taking what is needed from the forest, promoting sustainability. Capitalism and the Environment ○ Capitalist Framework: Based on a view rooted in European Christianity that humans dominate nature. Under capitalism, nature is often seen as a free resource for exploitation. Environmental damage is overlooked in the pursuit of surplus value and accumulation of resources. ○ Anthropocene: A term used to describe a new geological epoch in which human activity has become the dominant influence on Earth’s environment, climate, and ecosystems. Unlike previous epochs, which were shaped by natural forces, the Anthropocene marks a period where human actions—such as industrialisation, deforestation, urbanisation, and pollution—are fundamentally transforming the planet.  Environmental degradation, like climate change, ocean acidification, and biodiversity loss, is closely linked to global capitalism. Blame and Responsibility in Environmental Crises ○ Individual Blame: The blame for environmental harm is frequently directed at individuals, especially marginalised groups, instead of larger economic structures. Example: For example, instead of scrutinising corporations that produce large amounts of waste or governments that allow deforestation, the blame is placed on individuals for things like using plastic bags or not recycling. Green consumerism promotes individual responsibility, but this approach can obscure broader political and economic causes. While these actions can be positive, focusing solely on individual behaviour obscures the larger political and economic causes of environmental issues, such as industrial pollution, deforestation, and overexploitation of resources driven by profit motives. ○ Neoliberal Individual Responsibility: idea that people should take personal responsibility for their well-being and actions, which aligns with neoliberalism—an ideology that emphasises free-market solutions, limited government intervention, and personal choice. Applying this to environmental responsibility simplifies the issue, making it seem like individual choices alone can solve environmental problems. However, this perspective often reinforces inequality because it overlooks that those most affected by environmental crises (such as low-income or marginalised groups) may lack the resources to make sustainable choices or adapt to environmental harm. Environmental (In)Justice ○ Environmental Injustice: Environmental harms disproportionately affect marginalised groups. Even natural disasters, like Hurricane Katrina, illustrate how vulnerability is often shaped by social inequalities. ○ Global Environmental Inequality: Environmental impacts are often felt more in the Global South, while the Global North benefits from resource extraction, maintaining a colonial pattern of exploitation. Example: Sand dredging exemplifies how Global South resources support the Global North’s demands, perpetuating environmental and social disparities. ○ Commodity Fetishism: This concept highlights how consumer relationships with products often obscure the environmental and human costs of production. In capitalist societies, consumers often view products as standalone items with value, without recognising the social, environmental, and human processes that go into producing them. The term “fetishism” here means that products are “worshipped” or valued independently of the labour and resources behind them, which are hidden or obscured from the consumer’s view. In this context, commodity fetishism means that we don’t typically see or think about the real costs of production—such as the exploitation of  workers, resource depletion, and environmental destruction—when we buy and use products. Instead, we only see the finished product (like a chocolate bar or a bottle of shampoo) and its price, treating it as if it simply exists without any wider impacts. Example: Palm oil production involves significant environmental harm, including deforestation and biodiversity loss, yet its impacts are often hidden from consumers. Its production often involves large-scale deforestation, destruction of natural habitats, and loss of biodiversity, particularly in Southeast Asia. Government and Agribusiness: ○ Government-backed concessions to agribusinesses can lead to land dispossession, loss of biodiversity, and long-term environmental harm. Profits often do not reach affected communities, who bear the environmental costs. Environmental Justice ○ Movements for Environmental Justice: Activists globally work to address the unequal distribution of environmental harms. These efforts range from informal consciousness-raising to high-profile advocacy, seeking to empower affected communities and demand fairer distribution of environmental benefits and harms. Alternative Futures and the Need for Action ○ Rethinking Human-Nature Relationships: Advocates suggest re-evaluating humans' relationship with nature, encouraging systems that respect non-human entities and promote sustainability. ○ Structural Change: Addressing environmental crises requires changes to the political and economic structures that drive unsustainable practices. Immediate action is essential to prevent further environmental degradation and create a more equitable world.