GE 313 Basic Concepts - Nature/Culture Divide

GE 313 - BASIC CONCEPTS THE NATURE/CULTURE DIVIDE The distinction between nature and the social world is a product of Enlightenment thought, which produced and required the “Othering” of nature. The duality between the human and the natural, with the supremacy of culture, has affected Eur...

GE 313 - BASIC CONCEPTS THE NATURE/CULTURE DIVIDE The distinction between nature and the social world is a product of Enlightenment thought, which produced and required the “Othering” of nature. The duality between the human and the natural, with the supremacy of culture, has affected European modernity and its cultural heritage. The rise of anthropology: there is one nature and many cultures. Culture “deforms” human naturalness: the concept of “endangered nature” + the need to save the “original”, “natural” world, and “unspoilt” culture. (Romanticism of the 19th century) ANTHROPOCENTRISM Refers to a human-centered, or “anthropocentric,” point of view. In philosophy : the point of view that humans are the only, or primary, holders of moral standing. Nature is seen in terms of its value to humans. Challenges to anthropocentrism (I) Charles Darwin (1859. On the origin of the species by means of natural selection, or, the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life. ) Theory of natural selection. Humans too, were produced through evolutionary processes. Difference between humans and other animals is one of degree, and not of kind. Thomas Henry Huxley (1863. Evidence as to man’s place in nature.) Humans and apes belong to the same order of primates. Early environmentalism/conservationalism: (Ralph Waldo Emerson, John Muir, Henry David Thoreau, Mark Twain) Emergence of the environmental movement in the mid-20th-century:questioning of anthropocentric value systems + in some cases, an embrace of non-anthropocentric or anti-anthropocentric alternatives + Notion of «sustainable development». Challenges to anthropocentrism (II) Environmental ethics (late 20th century) Widespread concern for the state of the environment. Recognition of biocentric, ecocentric, and generally non-anthropocentric value systems. Moral extension (since the early 1960s): the extension of moral standing to nonhumans (a central proposition of many non-anthropocentric value systems). Jonathan Safran Foer. 2009. Eating animals. Michael Pollan. 2006. The omnivore’s dilemma: A natural history of four meals. Tom Regan. 2004. The case for animal rights. Peter Singer. 1990. Animal liberation. Gary Steiner. 2010. Anthropocentrism and its discontents: The moral status of animals in the history of Western philosophy. Challenges to anthropocentrism (III) Actor-network theory (ANT): (Bruno Latour, Michael Callon) Questions the subject-object divide that positions humans as the subjects of action, and nature as the object. Considers nonhumans as actants, possessing certain forms of agency. Humans and other beings are conceived as participating in “the social.” (Bruno Latour. 2005. Reassembling the social: An introduction to actor-network-theory.) (Donna J.Haraway. 2008. When species meet.) (Tim Ingold. 2012. Toward an ecology of materials.) Animal rights movements. Animal studies. Critical Animal Theory THE ANTHROPECENE A growing group of scientists argue that the Anthropocene Epoch should follow the Holocene Epoch (11,700 years ago to the present) and begin in the year 1950. The name Anthropocene is derived from Greek and means the “recent age of man.” Recognition of the disproportionate effects of human activity on the biosphere. Argument first made by Paul J. Grutzen: (2002. «Geology of mankind», Nature 415.6867: 23.) The concept of the Anthropocene has increasingly been adopted as a framework for analysis. For further info:http://www.anthropocene.info/index.php The Anthropecene Project: (https://theanthropocene.org/) ANTHROPECENE, a film directed by Steve Bradshaw (http://www.anthropocenethemovie.com/) ANTHROPOCENE: THE HUMAN EPOCH, a documentary directed by Jennifer Baichwall, Nicholas de Pencier, and Edward Burtynsky. (theanthropocene.org/film/) HOLOCENE / ANTHROPOCENE Critics of the term «anthropocene» argue that this term can be misleading. Modern humans were already well established long before. The Holocene Epoch began 12,000 to 11,500 years ago at the close of the Paleolithic Ice Age and continues through today. Agriculture: Humans overcoming limiting factors in the environment that provide natural balances to populations Availability of food, water and shelter Evolutionary relationships (predator/prey ratios) Pathogens The Industrial Revolution (19th century) : human populations grew exponentially + + climb in birth rates FACTORY FARMING / INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE - TIMELINE 1750: Highly organized agriculture in England 1830’s: John Deere introduces steel plough 1890’s: Horse power is replaced by steam power 1905- 1920: Tractors are being used in the U.S. / Combines and other mechanized machines were developed over the next several decades – Soybean and sugar beets new crops in the U.S./ Haber-Bosch process allows nitrogen fertilizers to be produced synthetically. 1940’s: Breeding programs founded to develop high yielding hybrids of different cereals. / Widespread use of pesticides, such as DDT. 1960’s: Farms continue to decrease in number and increase in size. / Industrial methods in agriculture well established in U.S. and other Western nations. / Chemical inputs for agriculture greatly increase / Mechanized methods of farming and food production became the norm / Animal agriculture industry begins raising large numbers of animals confined in crowded indoor facilities / Dramatic increases in yields—with significant hidden costs. FACTORY FARMING / INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE Heavily dependent on synthetic inputs. Concentration of production. Vertical integration of producing and marketing food. Spectacular increases in productivity. Depends on expensive inputs from off the farm (e.g., pesticides and fertilizer), many of which generate wastes that harm the environment. Uses large quantities of nonrenewable fossil fuels. “Cheap” food. Large, profitable agricultural industries with increasing number of export markets. Animal farming: The core principle behind vertical integration is to have a single corporate entity own and control every aspect of the “meat” production process—from feed mills and hatcheries to slaughterhouses—so that farmers solely raise animals on contract for the company at reduced prices. Producers discovered that animals could be kept inside, and fed grain, and could be bred to grow more quickly and get fatter in the right places. At the start of the 20th century, Chicago was the cradle of the slaughter industry. Using moving production lines, it took just 15 minutes for a cow to be killed, fully eviscerated and cut up. Up to 12 million animals were slaughtered annually in the city: this method was so efficient that Henry Ford adopted the production-line process to make cars IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZED ANIMAL FARMING (I) Bacterial infections that can be transmitted to humans, such as salmonella and campylobacter, can spread through large farms. A study in 2013 found that farming uses up to 92% of our freshwater, with nearly one-third of that related to animal products. According to FAO, the livestock sector has “serious implications” for water quality. (The types of water pollution include: nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilisers and animal excreta); pesticides; sediment; organic matter (oxygen demanding substances such as plant matter and livestock excreta); pathogens (E coli etc); metals (selenium etc) and emerging pollutants (drug residues, hormones and feed additives). IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZED ANIMAL FARMING (II) Land use and deforestation: Livestock is the world’s largest user of land resources ,with grazing land and cropland dedicated to the production of feed representing almost 80% of all agricultural land. Climate change: According to the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, agriculture, forestry and other land use accounts for 24 % of greenhouse gases. A 2017 study found that the top three meat firms – JBS, Cargill and Tyson – emitted more greenhouse gases in 2016 than all of France. For further details see: Meat Atlas (https://www.foeeurope.org/sites/default/files/publications/foee_hbf_meat atlas_jan2014.pdf) Livestock’s Long Shadow (http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.HTM) SPECİESİSM The assumption that animals are inferior. We can use them solely because they were born with features such as fur or feathers. Speciesism overlooks our sameness - sentience -. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oz8KEF8oid0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=swI68y2oQ60 CARNISM Belief system, or ideology, that conditions people to eat certain animals. Main feature: invisible. Carnism is a dominant belief system. It is widespread , and its principles and practices are considered common sense, "the way things are," rather than a set of widely held opinions. Carnism is sustained by complex psychological and social mechanisms. «Carnistic bias» is built into the very foundations of society – when we study nutrition, for example, we actually study carnistic nutrition. Why has carnism not been named until now? One reason is that it is simply easier to recognize those belief systems that fall outside the mainstream (e.g., vegetarianism or veganism). Dr. Melanie Joy: Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows: An Introduction to Carnism https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o0VrZPBskpg  VEGETARIANISM, VEGANISM, ABOLITIONIST VEGANISM Vegetarian: Someone who lives on a diet of grains, pulses, legumes, nuts, seeds, vegetables, fruits, fungi, algae, yeast and/or some other non-animal-based foods (e.g. salt) with, or without, dairy products, honey and/or eggs. A vegetarian does not eat foods that consist of, or have been produced with the aid of products consisting of or created from, any part of the body of a living or dead animal. This includes meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, insects, by-products of slaughter or any food made with processing aids created from these. Lacto-ovo-vegetarians eat both dairy products and eggs; this is the most common type of vegetarian diet. Lacto-vegetarians eat dairy products but avoid eggs. Ovo-vegetarian. Eats eggs but not dairy products. Vegan: Someone who seeks to exclude, as far as possible and practicable, all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose. Abolitionist approach to animal rights & abolitionist veganism: The view that the use of nonhuman animals by humans should be abolished. /Animals are individuals who deserve respect./Does not accept the regulation or reform of animal use. ANCIENT CULTURES AND ANIMALS GE 313  Indigenous vs modern views on animals 1 - Indigenous groups hold a fundamentally different view of their relationship to animals than do modern industrialized societies. - Modern societies tend toward the view put forward by Descartes that non-human animals are simply automata, with no ability to reason or have an ability for self-awareness. - There are exceptions for animals used as pets, and perhaps those living in zoos, but the general treatment of the vast majority of animals which reside within the agricultural, fishing and pharmaceutical industries belie a disregard for animals as sentient creatures. - Even pets and zoo animals are still considered to be items of property without independent legal status. Indigenous vs modern views on animals 2 - In hunter-gatherer societies where humans interact with wild animals, non-humans are seen as having a level of equality with humans. - As humans gain more control of their environment through herding and agriculture their worldview does seem to change towards a separation with nature, and thus between humans and non-humans. - The movement from a hunter-gatherer existence to one of domesticating animals can be seen as a great watershed in human-animal relations. - Wild species that might earlier have been considered ancestors or embodiments of sacredness were increasingly classified as predators (on humans and their domestic livestock), quarry for human hunts, competitors for space and resources, vermin, or spectacles for observation as captives or in staged fights. Indigenous vs modern views on animals 3 - In indigenous cultures animals are respected and looked up to. - They are knowns as very powerful and special creatures in which they all have their own unique meaning and symbols. - In the eyes of an aboriginal person, animals were not only a food source, but they were also way closer to the peoples. - They were like friends and even closer more like family. Indigenous perspectives 1 - Indigenous hunter-gatherer societies treat other animals as fully sentient beings which have equal status to humans, and must be shown respect even when they are hunted. - Many of their spiritual beliefs and myths involve the movement between human and non-human forms, and even the development of humans from non-human forms, somewhat paralleling the theory of evolution. - The need to respect animals, so that they will give themselves up to the hunter, is a concept shared across the indigenous groups. Indigenous perspectives 2 - The natural world, now commonly referred to as the “environment”, is not viewed as a separate entity but one, interconnected aspect of the whole. This interconnectedness equates to a moral responsibility to care for, live in harmony with, and respect the natural world. - The “Animal People” have spirits and enter the human world to give their bodies to supply men with food, fur and other materials. After their flesh is used the animals return home, put on new flesh and re-enter the human world whenever they choose. - Indigenous perspectives 3 - The traditional concepts of respect and sharing that form the foundation of the Aboriginal way of life are built around the seven natural laws, or sacred teachings. - Each teaching honours one of the basic virtues intrinsic to a full and healthy life. - Each law is embodied by an animal to underscore the point that all actions and decisions made by man are manifest on a physical plain. - The animal world taught man how to live close to the earth, and the connection that has been established between the animal world and that of man has instilled a respect for all life in those who follow the traditional Aboriginal way. Indigenous perspectives 4 - Interconnected relationship between animals and humans: Indigenous Peoples were careful and respectful of the natural life cycles of the animals they shared the Earth with - they made efforts to not over-fish, over-hunt or over-harvest. - They hunted, fished and collected what was needed to sustain their families, tribes, or clans. - Every part of the animal was used, and in many cultures, there were accompanying celebrations and rituals of appreciation. - There was no stock or species depletion due to over-harvesting - this came with the Europeans and a prime example is the sad fate of the buffalo. - There was also no need for artificial wildlife management, which is an alien concept to numerous Indigenous cultures. The Yup’ik Eskimo of Alaska - The Yup’ik Eskimo of Alaska view animals as non-human persons , and the ongoing relationship between animals and humans is central to their worldview. - This relationship is seen as one of reciprocity, with the animals only giving themselves to the hunters who have respect for them as persons in their own right. - The similarities between humans and animals are emphasized, rather than the differences: Both are believed to have immortal souls which participate in an endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. They are also seen as sharing the ability for self-awareness and the ability to control their own destinies. The Gwich’in indigenous population of Northern Canada and Alaska - Respect for animals as persons, and the ability for humans and non-humans to switch places. - Gwich’in legends have it that Caribou took human form before deciding to turn back into Caribou, and that a human turned into a Caribou for a year - The many rules of respect include the imperatives that none of the killed animal must be wasted, that a wounded animal must never be left to die, and that no one must step in the killed animal’s blood The Rock Cree - They see animals as judging the conduct of humans towards them when deciding whether or not give themselves up to the hunter , including the treatment of the animals bones and blood. - Animals have souls, and experience rebirth, in the same way that humans do. Colonial practices 1 - Animals, like Indigenous Peoples, have been targets for colonial violence. - The colonial violence involves both concrete acts of physical harm and the killing of animals as well as epistemic forms of violence such as the denigration of Indigenous-animal relationalities and the narrative removal of animals from landscapes. - “Animal colonialism”: useful analytic for understanding the ways in which the attempted genocides of Indigenous Peoples and animal genocides are interconnected and co-facilitated by the colonial institutions of heteropatriarchy, environmental racism, and religious fundamentalism. Colonial practices: Systematic slaughter of the Buffalo 1 - One of the most devastating and well known example of animal colonialism to take place under the aspiration of nation making in North America was the systematic slaughter of Prairie Bison, or Buffalo, which had dire consequences for Indigenous Peoples. - Prior to colonization Bison provided Indigenous Peoples with valuable source of nutrition as well as spiritual, cultural, and material sustenance. Hunting ensured a reliable food source, and Buffalo also offered building materials, clothing, and medicines. Buffalo were central to ceremonial life, and understood to be more-than-human persons. - Historians and ecologists estimate that approximately between twenty-five to thirty million Buffalo were present in North America in the sixteenth century. - By 1902, they estimate these numbers were reduced to only two dozen surviving Buffalo now protected within the boundaries of Yellowstone National Park. - Colonial officials targeted buffalo as a strategy of subjugation. Colonial practices: Systematic slaughter of the Buffalo 2 - The decimation of the Buffalo had devastating effects for Indigenous Peoples. - Historian Ken Zontek describes the loss of Buffalo as “nearly cataclysmic” and having constituted a “virtual apocalypse”. - By 1884, for example, one-fourth of twenty-three-hundred Blackfeet Peoples in the United States starved to death without Buffalo to sustain them. - In response to such grave losses, new religious movements directed towards restoring the Buffalo and by extension the health of the lands and peoples, such as the Ghost Dance, spread across the United States. Animals being used to facilitate colonialism - The introduction of domesticated animals to North America was of profound consequence to Indigenous ecologies and political economies. Domesticated animals assisted settlers with the work of “taming the land” and establishing colonies. - These animals introduced diseases, such as anthrax, Texas tick fever, brucellosis, and bovine tuberculosis. - Domesticated livestock interfered with traditional subsistence practices: Pigs unearthed acorns, cattle scared away deer, and sheep eroded soil and ruined streams where communities hunted and harvested. ANIMALS IN SOCIETY AND THE MEDIA ANIMALS IN SOCIETY AND THE MEDIA Animals are used as symbols in art and literature. Also a very strong presence in many media forms, especially in popular culture materials including books, magazines, film, television, internet, and so on. Besides being used as symbols, they also take roles as entertainers. Animal Representations in Art Animal Representations in Art The use of animal imagery as symbolism in art has been common since ancient times. Throughout history artists have always created drawings and paintings of animals. Cave paintings depicted animals as a part of daily life. Ancient Egyptian art depicted many of gods with the heads of animals. Tribal art from every continent combine animal and human to symbolize man's bond with his natural environment. Animal Representations in Art In Middle Ages, artists used commonplace creatures as well as mythical beasts. In 17th century art, illustrating animals, especially hunting scenes. 18th century artists chose to celebrate the natural beauty and power of animals in their natural habitats. In the 19th century, Victorian artists painted sentimental pictures of their domestic pets. 20th century artists like Picasso or Miro painted animals in abstract figures. Cave Paintings Animals were one of the most common subjects in cave paintings The earliest known cave paintings of animals are at least 35,000 years old – Indonesia Most common subjects are large wild animals, such as bison, horses, and deer Cave Paintings Mythical animals as well as real ones (unicorn in France) Some are thought to represent religious beliefs Incidents like animal migrations Cave Paintings The paintings depict the lives of the people who lived in the caves Scenes of childbirth, communal dancing and drinking, religious rites and burials, and animals. Animals’ importance in daily life. Cave Paintings Some theories throughout history: (1) Purely decorative, with no complex meanings. But they depicted a limited range of species! (2) Ensure successful hunting. But very few figures have weapons drawn on them. Animal bones found in many decorated caves are not of the same species as those depicted on the walls. (3) Animal pictures not as portraits of animals, but as symbols. Ancient Egyptian Art Animals to illustrate the characteristics of gods – Horus was depicted as a falcon because he was believed to have falcon-like qualities. Mummified animals – owners mummified pets, perhaps in the hope that they could join them in the next life; provide a food source for the deceased in the next life; certain species were sacred. Ancient Egyptian Art Anubis attending the mummy of the deceased (1300 BC) Sunk relief of the crocodile god Sobek A ceramic bird shaped vessel 664 BC 1400 BC Medieval Art Early medieval jewelry had animal forms. Bibles make use of animal designs to enliven the sacred text. Animal forms were employed to utilitarian objects. Medieval Art Fragment of a Wall Hanging 4th–6th century Plaque with God Creating the Animals 1084 Wall Painting of a Camel Aquamanile in the Form of a Lion (1129) (ca. 1400) Renaissance Art Animals as disguised symbols. Artists used animals to depict their own mythological and religious views. One single animal could represent different, often contradictory meanings. Renaissance Art Rhinoceros (1515) Albrecht Dürer Study of horses for the Battle of Anghiari (1503) Leonardo da Vinci A Young Hare (1502) Albrecht Dürer 16. Century Renaissance Art A Man Grasping the Hind Legs of a Deer Sleeping Dog (1600s) Unknown Artist (1650) Gerrit Dou The Children of Charles I of England 17. Century (1636) Anthony van Dyck Renaissance Art Symbolism in Renaissance Art Dogs Sometimes part of a hunting scene, or most frequently, beside their masters in portraits Role of the dog also changed: working dogs were ubiquitous, they pulled carts, herded sheep, and baited wild animals Then its status increased: integrated into court life, aristocratic tastes and fashion Renaissance Art Symbolism in Renaissance Art Pisanello – produced a great deal of art that contained animal imagery Inspired by his own dogs and the detailed anatomical descriptions he did of them in his sketchbooks Realistic style Tense, nervous hunting dogs The Vision of Saint Eustace (1438) Pisanello Renaissance Art Symbolism in Renaissance Art Ermine represents different, often contradictory meanings Previously symbolized purity and virginity But in Leonardo da Vinci’s Lady with an Ermine, the subject is Cecilia Galleriano, the mistress of Ludovico Sforza (the Duke of Milan) An allegory on this relationship: adultery, a new symbol on the image of the animal Lady with an Ermine (1489) Leonardo da Vinci 18th Century Art Mares and Foals in a River Landscape Fox in a Chicken Yard (1768) George Stubbs (1766) Jean-Baptiste Marie Huet Miss Anna Ward with Her Dog (1787) Joshua Reynolds 19th Century Art The Passage of the Delaware The Hunters at Rest (1819) Thomas Sully (1871) Vasily Perov Head of a Dog (1870) Renoir 20th Century Art The Fire-eating Bird (1969) Joan Miro Foxes (1913) Franz Marc A Rooster (1938) Pablo Picasso Animal Representations in Literature Animal Representations in Literature Portrayal of animals in literature are sometimes realistic, sometimes anthropomorphic Anthropomorphism: attribution of human motivation, characteristics, or behavior to inanimate objects, animals or natural phenomena Animals appear like humans, talk, fall in love, wear clothing, etc. Some portrayals are positive while some are negative Animals in Fables A brief fictional story that features animals, mythical creatures, plants, inanimate objects Leads to an interpretation of a moral lesson and ends with a wise saying Animals in these stories can either be the aggressor or the rescuer Some represent wisdom Animals in Fables Most famous names are Aesop and La Fontaine The Tortoise and the Hare The Ant and the Grasshopper The Lion and the Mouse Animals in Tales According to Claude Lévi-Strauss, fairytales speak through beasts to explore common experiences Obvious types are the wolves, foxes, lions, donkeys, birds, frogs, ants, etc. Animals in Tales Little Red Riding Hood “Big Bad Wolf” Imposter, wild, and greedy… Animals in Tales Beauty and the Beast Beast is portrayed as a warthog by Walter Crane Beast is a “monstrous”, aggressive, despotic creature who uses violence on Beauty Animals in Tales The Frog Prince A spoiled princess refuses to the ugly frog When she changes her mind and kisses the frog, it turns into a prince In an alternative version, the frog's spell was broken when the princess threw it against a wall in disgust Animals in Novels Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland Lewis Carroll One of the most famous examples A grinning cat raising philosophical points A polite rabbit A rude caterpillar, etc. Animals in Novels The Black Beauty Anna Sewell Themes: kindness, sympathy, love, peace, and compassion Love as a cure Animals in Novels Animal Farm George Orwell Pigs – symbols of man’s greed Horses and donkeys – loyal, kind, hard-working Goats – wise Hens – rebellious All animals are equal but some are more equal than others! Animals in Language Animals in Daily Discourse Using animal names or the word “animal” itself as swearwords. “Hayvan”, “öküz”, “ayı”, “it”, “kuş beyinli”, “domuz”, “deve”, “şebek”, etc. “Bunlara hayvan demek hayvanlara hakarettir.” – thankfully. Animals in Proverbs and Idioms At ölür, itlere bayram olur. Kurt kocayınca köpeklere maskara olur. Sürüden ayrılanı (kuzuyu, koyunu) kurt kapar. Eşeğe altın semer vursalar, eşek yine eşektir. Sinek küçüktür ama mide bulandırır. Kırk gün tavuk yaşayacağına, bir gün horoz yaşa. Yılanın başı küçükken ezilmeli. Tilkinin dönüp dolaşıp geleceği yer kürkçü dükkânıdır. Balık baştan kokar. Attan inip eşeğe binmek. Animal Representations in Media Animals in Early Films Nanook of the North (1922) Polar bears are shown as wild and malicious, while eskimos are friendly Scenes of hunting as a daily routine such as building houses, raising children, etc. Funded by French fur company Revillon Frères! Animals in Early Films King Kong (1933) A gigantic, prehistoric ape called Kong Attempts to possess a beautiful young woman Has gorilla-like appearance but also a humanoid look Describes as being "neither beast nor man“ Semi-human intelligence and great physical strength Animals in Animated Cartoons First examples attach basic human characteristics to animals Following examples render stereotyping through race, ethnicity, gender, social status, personality etc. Racial stereotypes not only through human, but also non-humans! White supremacy, and the idea of exotic locals Animals in Animated Cartoons Gertie the Dinosaur (1914) One of the earliest examples of animated cartoons She laughs, cries, dances tango, answers questions and obeys every command! Animals in Animated Cartoons Mickey Mouse and Friends (1928) Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy and Pluto Mickey is a funny guy, has a girlfriend, Minnie Donald is a duck who has an explosive temper Goofy is clumsy and stupid dog Pluto is a real pet dog! Animals in Animated Cartoons Looney Tunes (1930) Bugs Bunny - smarty, cocky and playfully aggressive. Also named “fascist” as calls a Japanese soldier “slant eyes” and “monkey face” Wile E. Coyote – unlike the widespread belief, is clumsy. Even malicious, audience pity him Pepe Le Pew – a skunt tries to possess a cat by force Speedy Gonzales – exaggerated Mexican accent, outfit of rural Mexican villagers Animals in Animated Cartoons Woody Woodpecker (1940) Has a bizzare personality Acts crazily, causes harm Uses kinds of weapons to treaten or hurt Annoys other woodland creatures Animals in Animated Cartoons Dumbo (1941) Heartbroken elephant as he’s ridiculed because of his enormous ears Elephants were seen monstrous at that time but by the film, they became known as gentle and kind Animals in Animated Cartoons Tom and Jerry (1947) Racial stereotyping through animal imagery is explicit After explosions, faces would resemble stereotypical blacks, with large lips, a “black face” - the residue the explosion would leave behind Character Mammy Two Shoes - a poor black maid who speaks in a stereotypical “black accent”, middle-aged black woman Later re-animated as a slim white woman when regarded as racist! – how sweet of them... Tom was able to sell Jerry after painting him white Animals in Animated Cartoons Lady and The Tramp (1955) Siamese cats are the antagonists in the story Even though the Siamese cats were owned by the Royal Family in Thailand in the past, the film portrayed them as mischievous trouble-makers They portray Asian stereotypes: with slanted eyes and buckteeth They speak with poor grammar and accents Actually the breed is an affectionate and loving one, but many people see them as dangerous because of the film Animals in Animated Cartoons The Flintstones (1960) Social othering of animals The most remarkable tactic for “othering” is animal labour Making a distinction through class (upper-lower) makes it easier to mistreat Being poor because of the lack of qualities as intelligence and rationality Animals in Animated Cartoons The Aristocats (1970) Extremely exaggerates Asian stereotypes Same physical characteristics and accent Holding chopsticks in both hands while playing the piano and sings “Shanghai, Hong Kong, Egg Foo Young! Fortune cookie always wrong!” Animals in Animated Cartoons The Little Mermaid (1989) Gender stereotyping Ariel sacrifices… (1) her body (2) her family (3) her voice as her greatest talent for the man she loves. The man she loves notices her after her transformed body She will never be able to talk with him and that’s not a problem! Animals in Animated Cartoons Lion King (1994) Simba – cute, good-tempered, kind-hearted, loyal to friends and brave Scar - skinny, has a low and secretive voice, evil Criticised to exhibit behaviours that are uncharacteristic of animals they portray - Mix of the animal kingdom (antelopes, elephants, leopards, lions, etc.) living peacefully together is unrealistic - Caring relationship between mother lions and cubs, and between lions and lionesses is unrealistic Criticised to reinforce ideologies of power and male dominance hegemony Animals in Animated Cartoons Finding Nemo (2003) Nemo – curious, excited, eager to explore Dory – short-term memory, distracted, failure to complete simple tasks, hyperactive Gill – anti-social, has PTSD after being prisoned Crush – has OCD, obsessed with being clean Deb – schizophrenic, having delusions Bruce – bipolar, severe happiness and sadness, abandoned by his father Animals in Animated Cartoons Ratatouille (2007) Remy - A gourmet cook rat! Washes hands before cooking Gets angry with other rats because they eat from garbage Suffered many mental problems, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia Animals in Animated Cartoons Sometimes personality stereotypes are being attached to certain species Birds are generally portrayed funny Cute but stupid and clumsy… Those representations have a significant impact on the viewers, specifically on the targeted audience, children Animals in Television Programs Muppet Show Miss Piggy - feminine, flirtatious, moody, and demanding diva Romantic relationship with Kermit Sells bacon! Kermit - a loving, caring, humorous, wise frog Animal Actors in Movies and TV Series Lassie A friendly, loving, intelligent female collie She rescues two half-brothers who are lost and dying in the snow "Lassie saves the day" Animal Actors in Movies and TV Series Babe A pig who dreams of being a sheepdog “Pigs were afforded no respect, except by other pigs. They lived their whole lives in a cruel and sunless world” The sooner they grew large and fat, the sooner they would have to be taken to Pig Paradise - a place so wonderful that no pig had ever thought to come back… Animal Actors in Movies and TV Series Çarli Reads newspapers in the toilet Plays video games Watches football games with his “friends” Knits! Half-Human Half-Animal Heroes of Hollywood Batman A hero or an illegal vigilante? Terrorises people But infact, he wants to fix the justice system of the city which his parents were victims to that - PTSD Willingness to risk his life for others: sometimes extreme altruism Unlike other heroes, he does not have a super power, only his intelligence, investigative skills Half-Human Half-Animal Heroes of Hollywood The Penguin Not a hero, but a villain Short, chubby penguin man Rich aristocrat; wealth and status are the most important things in his life A crime lord, psychopathic killer Half-Human Half-Animal Heroes of Hollywood Catwoman Having a complex love-hate relationship with Batman and has been Batman's most enduring love interest Using her sexuality to get what she wants Not an anti-hero but a supervillain Half-Human Half-Animal Heroes of Hollywood Spiderman Anti-social, lonely, has self-obsessions with rejection, and inadequacy A fear of women Has super powers but not able to solve personal problems with those powers Animal Symbolism in Films The Birds Attack of the evil birds Birds symbolize chaos, uncertainty, doom Nature thrown out of balance by technology and war (story takes place after WW2) Attacks by the birds by schools symbolize children’s desire for liberation Emotional dysfunction, characters are unable to have mature, honest, intimate, commited relationships Animal Symbolism in Films Life of Pi Themes of faith, friendship, and patience Hyena - The cook. Kills the zebra and orangutan. Represents the vicious and evil in the world. Zebra - Taiwanese sailor. His leg is brutally torn apart by the hyena and is then eaten alive. Represents vulnerableness and implies mercilessness has devastating effect on others. Orangutan - Pi’s mother. Compassion, warmness, safety and protection but defenselessness at the same time. Tiger - Pi himself. Blend of many sides. Inner strength, brutality but enlightenment. Animal Symbolism in Films Hachi Based on a true story of a man and his dog Hachikō Friendliness, faithfulness, and sentiment of the dog Waited for his master to come for 9 years. Animals in Advertisements Safari theme in ads of Ralph Lauren and Michael Kors Complex historical link of imperialism remains deeply embedded Animals in Advertisements Animals in Advertisements Animals in Advertisements Animals in Advertisements Animals in Advertisements Animals in Advertisements Animals in Advertisements Animals in Social Responsibility Campaigns Ads that call attention to environmental issues uses various species of animals to invoke sympathy in humans To gain the viewer’s sympathies on behalf of the helpless animals, the goal is then to empower the viewer to help/save that animal The cuter and well known the animal is, such as a polar bear, tiger or giant panda, the more people care and sympathize ‘Ugly’ animals or insects that are typically disregarded Animals in Social Responsibility Campaigns Highlights the effects of global warming on polar ecosystems and animals A powerless, cute animal draws attention to how global warming is having major effects in other areas of the world The general population does not give thought to on a daily basis! Animals in Social Responsibility Campaigns Pictured in exaggerated manners, emphasizing the urgent need for action to save our environment Makes people picture themselves as that animal and how horrible it must feel to be in a foreign place Placement of Arctic animals in a city, a parallel to the stereotypes of homeless people Animals in Social Responsibility Campaigns Animals in Social Responsibility Campaigns Animals in Social Responsibility Campaigns Animals in Social Responsibility Campaigns Animals in Social Responsibility Campaigns Animals in Social Responsibility Campaigns Animals in Social Responsibility Campaigns Animals in Social Responsibility Campaigns Animals in Social Responsibility Campaigns Starification of Animals in Media Superstar Animals Beyond individualization, personification, “starified” animals Starification of Animals in Media Indicators of the starified animal Individual name (human like or not) Individual history (references to family, parents, age, date and place of birth, etc.) (1) like everybody (having a daily life with emotions, difficulties, etc.) or (2) like a hero (inaccessible and fascinating) Starification of Animals in Media Knut the Polar Bear The little polar bear of the Berlin zoo Born in December 2006 in captivity. Emotional story: rejected by his mother (sometimes happens in a captive environment and after spending some time in an incubator), Knut then chose to “adopt” a substitute mother, a zookeeper. Starification of Animals in Media Knut the Polar Bear Described as “the button-eyed ball of white fluff” Like all offspring of threatened species, his birth provoked public curiosity. 27 % increase in visitors Starification of Animals in Media A great profit of nearly 8.6 million dollars from soft toys, t-shirts, mugs, figurines, and DVDs. Huge media coverage - became the center of a mass-media phenomenon known as Knutmania. Starification of Animals in Media Knut the Polar Bear Vanity Fair cover “Human” celebrities like Leonardo DiCaprio, Tom Cruise and his daughter Suri visited Knut. Starification of Animals in Media Knut the Polar Bear As a young adult, Knut was no longer capable of attracting the attention of the public Fell into a melancholy after his substitute mother has died Media compared that to Britney Spears’ un-success story! Starification of Animals in Media Knut the Polar Bear Scientists from PETA and animal welfare groups began to worry that he was displaying abnormal behavior because of all the attention. He sways to and fro, suffers panic attacks, shows obsessive behavior, and even imitates people taking pictures of him lifting his polar bear paws to his face! Keeper calls him a “publicity addicted psycho”. “He actually cries out if he sees that there is not a spectator outside his enclosure ready to ooh and aah at him.” Starification of Animals in Media Knut the Polar Bear Unexpected death on 19th of March, 2011 Before a crowd of 600-700 people, Knut began repeatedly circling on top of a rock, his leg started to shake, he then began staggering, and suddenly fell into the pool in this enclosure. Just like every move in his life, this was also captured on video, placed on the web and got thousands of hits. Although the necrospy reported the cause of death as drowning, it was also revealed that Knut had been suffering encephalitis for a while. Starification of Animals in Media Knut the Polar Bear Memorials poured in from around the world. People grieved online as if they had lost a member of their family. The thought of him being displayed in Berlin National History Museum caused outrage and protest. “It was decided that our Knut will not find peace after his death. We can not, and will not, accept that.” Animals in the News Anthropocentrism through Animal Representations in the News Recent media coverage of certain animal figures Highlighting aggressive animals Crime associated with dangerous dogs Pitbulls are stereotyped in the newspapers and media (pitbull terror) Portrayed as the archetype of canine evil Animals in the News Anthropocentrism through Animal Representations in the News Pitbulls are shown as beasts while superstar animals like Knut are shown as humans. Pitbulls are considered as species while superstar animals like Knut is presented as individual. Pitbulls are considered as aggressive while superstar animals like Knut are considered as friendly Newspaper coverage clearly underlines differences: Knut is the “World Savior” while pitbulls are “Battle Machines”, “Killers” Animals in the News Anthropocentrism through Animal Representations in the News Also highlighting threatening animals Animals as threats to human health: Mad cows, birds or pigs spreading the flu Animals in Social Media Funny Animal Images and Videos in Social Media CAPS 9GAG videos Animals in Social Media Humanized Animal Representations in Social Media Display of anthropomorphism in real life Animals being put into human clothes and given human-like identities Provoking pleasures through recreating the dog as a literal human animal capable of speaking, wearing clothes and working Viewing a mirrored image of ourselves in the form of a cute furry animal Animals in Social Media “How may I help you today? We have a sale on male cardigans for the fall weather” Animals in Social Media Animal Instagram Accounts “Pumpkin and Sunshine are both from New York and love to share their visual stories on Instagram.” Animals in Social Media Funny Animal Videos Animals in Fashion Animals in Fashion Animal Prints in Clothing and Accessories Fashion style resembles the pattern of the skin and fur of an animal such as leopard, cheetah, zebra, tiger and giraffe Popular and timeless trend, extending to other fields such as shoes, accessories and home decoration Animals in Fashion Started in the ancient time when clothing was used only to keep people warm and for protection! Cavemen used animal’s fur as clothes and blanket Then kings and other high-ranking people wore animal skin and use animal rugs as a sign of status and power Furs as a status symbol, was only affordable to royal families and the most powerful people in the society A masculine pattern - associated with the hunters who killed the beast Animals in Fashion In the 20th century fashion designers, high-ranking people, Hollywood stars and celebrities turned it into a fashion trend In 1925, American film actress Starlet Nixon wore a leopard coat and standing with her pet leopard In 1940s, Bettie Page wore a iconic animal print swimsuit Animals in Fashion In 1947, Christian Dior being the first introduced a leopard print dress In 1950s, Actress Elizabeth Taylor wore animal print swimsuit Animals in Fashion In 1950s, First lady – Jackie Kennedy wore a animal print coat In 1954, Marilyn Monroe was photographed wearing a lovely leopard print scarf – connoting glamour Animals in Fashion In the 1950s, Roger Vivier, a French fashion designer was the first to introduce animal print heels The end of the 1960s, a whole new revolution by the hippie movement. Animal print became popular women’s apparel in different new color In 1970s, the punk rock movement brought a new vibe, a dangerous and wild vibe to animal print in fashion – connoting wild Animals in Fashion In the 1990s, the Spice Girls walked in animal print on the runway Also in 1990s, Gianni Versace used animal print in all his collections. Today many famous brands, like Prada, Dolce & Gabbana, Christian Dior are big supporters of animal print. Supermodels, Hollywood stars and celebrities are also big fans of animal print. Women’s wear, men’s wear, kids’ wear, shoes, accessories like sunglasses, jewelries, handbags and scarves. Animals in Fashion Cat or bear head shaped hats for adults today Expression of sexuality or cuteness Owls or foxes as hot fashion statemens Animals in Fashion Why wear animal print? The patterns are locked into our DNA, going back to a time when our ancestors were hunter-gatherers and animal skins were treasured for their warmth We are searching to discover our primitive past Wearing the skin of an animal: harnessing that animal’s power Increase attractiveness, feelings of wild, exotic, luxury, classic, wealth, fun, dangerous, adventurous, glamorous, or sexy Animals in Fashion Not only print – animal-derived materials in clothing 25.000 $ for a seal fur coat 200.000 dead seals a year Animals in Fashion Celebrities who promote fur trends Animals in Fashion Celebrities who promote fur trends Animal as an Object of Contemporary Art Animal as an Object of Contemporary Art Animal is a prevalent object in contemporary art galleries. The animal imagery captures the eye much as nudity – the mysterious animal and it’s body. Artists like Damien Hirst, Adel Abdessemed, Paul McCarthy, and Matthew Barney regularly incorporate animals into their work. Animal as an Object of Contemporary Art Possible motivations: – Expressing the outcast status (or even underclass status) of both the wild animal and the artist. – Reflecting the artists’ sympathetic stance towards the animal. – As a remedy for the loss we feel about our estrangement with the animal world – Encouraging compassion and understanding toward the animal. Animal as an Object of Contemporary Art Artist Wendy Klemperer: “Often the animals depicted in my work are endangered, representing disappearing species. Decimated on purpose or inadvertently, they differ from extinct species: not erased completely, they survive on the fringes of the developed world. Presence and absence fluctuate in my sculptures: networks of steel lines draw the form, insubstantial as the ephemeral glimpse of a wild creature. Environment pierces the negative space between lines; emptiness infiltrates the work, echoing the absence of the animal.” Animal as an Object of Contemporary Art Anna-Lena Tsutsui’s “Baby Dolls” installation – an expression of our absurd cruelty towards animals A wall size projected video loop in which puppies are displayed in bright colorful boxes for sale which are stacked on top of each other as if in an enormous exaggerated tic-tac-toe. These boxes were actually shot individually at a store in Japan and made to appear as if they are displayed on top of each other. The restlessness of the maniacal and mechanical movements of the puppies are in intense opposition to the boxes. Animal as an Object of Contemporary Art Adel Abdessemed’s controversial “Don’t Trust Me” (2008), is a projection of a man in Mexico using a sledgehammer to bludgeon a series of farm animals which are being killed for consumption. Art critic Jerry Saltz discusses Facebook comments regarding Abdessemed: “Within minutes scores of comments poured in, almost all of them saying that this work was evil, despicable, 100 percent cruel. The conclusion of many was that ‘art should be moral.’ That’s when I started to get uncomfortable. People and animals are slaughtered and transported against their will every day. Arguably, Abdessemed is not doing anything to animals that we do not already do to animals. We dismiss this fact.” Animal as an Object of Contemporary Art Adel Abdessemed’s “Who’s afraid of the big bad wolf?” A display of taxidermy Animals of all kinds are compiled together in a wall sized piece. Also burned with fire and give off a smell. Artist explores death, and demands we acknowledge it by smell, sight, spirit. Innocence and vulnerability of the animal vs. cruel, violent, reckless, meaningless death by human hand. Animal as an Object of Contemporary Art Cai Guo-Qiang’s installation “Head On” Presents 99 life-like wolves moving into a suspended mid-air loop until they crash into a glass wall. Demonstrates the idea of pack mentality in order to express Nazism or Fascism. Animal as a Source of Entertainment for the Human Subject Animal as a Source of Entertainment for the Human Subject Using animals for entertainment is not new; people have been fascinated by animal acts for thousands of years. Ancient Rome - gladiators fought bears and lions in arenas and amphitheaters. China - unarmed men once battled dangerous animals for sport. U.S. - a lion was brought to Boston, for exhibition as early as 1716 Circuses with wild animal acts began forming in the late 1700s First American zoo - in Central Park in 1864 Animal as a Source of Entertainment for the Human Subject Evaluated as an important experience for children since it’s a powerful early bond with the animal that will influence them in later life. 2005 survey in U.S. More than half the country (56%) have visited a zoo, marine life park, or aquarium in a given year. 87% of the participants agreed the statement “You can learn about animals at marine life parks, aquariums and zoos in a way that can’t be replicated by watching film or TV programs.” 81% of young adults (age 18-34) are highly interested in swimming with dolphins. Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Zoos as a space of display Circuses and experience programs as a space of performance – horse shows, marine animal shows such as swimming with dolpins, seals performing acrobatics, dancing and even singing! Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Zoos According to John Berger, the zoo emergence, within the bourgeois western society of the second half of the 1800s, marks the beginning of the ontological separation between human beings and other animals. From that moment, the daily relationship with animals have changed. Zoo, circus and entertainment are different techniques for keeping the distance between animal and human life. Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Zoos There are more instances of representations of the animal and simulations of its natural environment than presence of the animal itself Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Zoos Smiling lions in the ads are definitely functional! Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Circuses Representations of animals in circus posters Circus advertising played a large part in the animal image Paid people vs. slaved animals Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Circuses Portrayed in costume, beginning the journey of anthropomorphizing the animal Illuminated human superiority: seeing one trainer amongst a number of large creatures was a clear display of power and dominance Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Circuses Jumbo: the first international animal superstar, and the first African elephant to reach modern Europe alive Acquired by P.T. Barnum in 1882 After his tragic death was memorialized and continued to be paraded by Barnum as a stuffed trophy Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Circuses By 1890s, the act of viewing the animal body was no longer enough, and therefore, animal performances were developed to satisfy human entertainment needs! Rather than simply display, an interaction truly began between humans and animals as circus acts Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Circuses Elephants were framed by concepts related to human movement Not only stand on their hind legs or tops of their heads, but they also appeared dressed in full costumes, played musical instruments, and participated in a game of baseball They represented family values and notions of animal families Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Circuses Animal Gender They represented family values and notions of animal families. Feminization Dressed in tutus, were trained to partake in ballets alongside glamorous women. Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Circuses Animal Gender Physical needs of female animals with human female beauty care.” Advertisement showed two elephants, named Romeo and Juliet Implied to have a romantic relationship through the projection of human characters onto the animals Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Circuses A number of violent incidents between bulls and trainers led to a temporary shift in public opinion, fearing that elephants were “killers”, “monstrous” and “murderous” This perception was briefly capitalized on, where advertisements played into notions of fear and the unknown. Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Circuses A National Geographic photographic series published in 1931 Documented the circus, which placed the circus on a national level in terms of media recognition Portrayal of an elephant and a young girl standing together, which gives the viewer the perception that elephants are safe, reliable, and loveable. Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Experience Programs Swim-with-the Dolphin Program Something beyond displaced real animals (ducks in the hotel pool, etc.) Intelligent, playful and curious about humans, when they see them, they get surprisingly close Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Experience Programs Programs gained popularity in 1960’s with Flipper The dolphinarium, the wild, the natural demarcated area Animal rights activists believe that humans should only swim with dolphins non-invasively in the wild, where the animals have the freedom to accept or decline the invitation to interact Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Experience Programs Most popular places are dolphinariums where they are forced to swim with humans Designed to resemble the wild (to the humans, not the dolphins) $300 for a 30-minute Dolphin encounter, includes a hug, a kiss, and a “dorsal pull” Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Experience Programs Representations of happy dolphins in marketing materials Most popular justification: they are smiling! Representations of Zoos, Circuses and Experience Programs Amusement Parks Animals as lifeless objects to bestride and entertain Animal Ownership Pet Animals The animal industry premises the animal as commodity. Pet Animals Transformation of the Pet Phenomenon Today the difference between wild and not-wild is blurred Cat, dog, turtle, goldfish, hamster are the “usual” ones Various unusual pets that are legal to own Sugarglider, fennec fox, slow loris, wallaroo, etc. Pet Animals Consequences and Possible Solutions Consequences and Possible Solutions Capitalism, power, and human exploitation has devastating effects on animals. All those cultural representations and practices that circulate in Western culture have a strong influence -good or bad- on the public’s perception of animals and therefore shape further actions… Consequences and Possible Solutions As being ubiquitous, popular media materials have strong influences on human behaviour… Jaws was about a terrifying great white shark who preyed on swimmers Film made more damage to sharks’ public image than anything Benji was a stray dog saves two kidnapped children Led to an increased public awareness of animals up for adoption Consequences and Possible Solutions Most of the representations on popular media content generally make animals more vulnerable, particularly when they are laughed at, presented as fools The cartoon animal is a misrepresentation of the wild animal; skews humans’ perceptions of animals Rather than bringing us closer, these representations further distance them from us Contrary to the trend of personification – reinforce human-animal alterity Consequences and Possible Solutions In the case of endangered species, repeated exposure in news media tends to result in viewers believing animals such as chimps are less endangered than they actually are. Representations of predatory animals in films such as sharks, bears, cougars, and wolves can make people more fearful and distrustful than is necessary. To represent animals as only bad or only good masks their true nature… Consequences and Possible Solutions News coverage of farmed animals typically reinforces to view them as bodies not beings, tending to objectify them discursively through: 1) commodification - using the inanimate pronoun ‘it’ - calling them meat, seafood - referRing to them by their utilitarian end such as dairy cows, laboratory rats, or circus elephants 2) failure to acknowledge their emotional perspectives - animals feel pain, loneliness, joy, fear (before the slaughter) 3) failure to describe them as inherently valuable individuals - ants are able to count the steps they take using "pedometer-like" cells in their brains Consequences and Possible Solutions The fashion industry lets humans take the advantage of positive animal attributes such as strength, wildness, nobility, etc. The entertainment industry (zoos, circuses, amusement parks, and experience programs) premises the animal as commodity Those representations connote human superiority over animals Justify human domination Trigger human selfishness Consequences and Possible Solutions Countless animals die while serving for the satisfaction of human – animal slaughter for food, clothing and animal abuse for entertainment, labour and research Fortunately and finally animal testing for cosmetics is banned! Consequences and Possible Solutions Some acts regarding animal rights activism backfire… Some of the representations embody many of the very issues that they fight against! The material often shows photographs or illustrations of the animal at it’s weakest. Consequences and Possible Solutions Restoring the animal integrity! These images document and expose a tragic truth; but they lead the viewer to pity the animal, undermining the majestic and dignified qualities of the wild animal. Changing the historical representation of the animal, largely construed by those places regarding animal entertainment and media and teaching the new generation the real nature of animals is essential. Consequences and Possible Solutions Cruel animal trade like the slow loris case The YouTube videos showing the cute animal being tickled triggered the trade The trade results with brutal activity such as teeth removal without anaesthesia, smuggling in dark, crowded, airless containers, etc. Not to mention the countless abandoned animals in shelters that are bought to please children for a very short time! Consequences and Possible Solutions Advertisers can be more socially and ecologically responsible if they: Humane-washing – misleading consumers about the company’s animal welfare policies like animal protection Not using nonhuman animals to associate a trait with a brand or product, consider the effect to the species in the real world to minimize harm. Avoid stereotyping a species - disgusting pests, cunning threats, rugged warriors, majestic nobles, beautiful exotics, comic jesters, cutesy playthings, objects of prey, or tools for human use. Be cautious about portraying endangered species, as studies have shown that audiences tend to get the impression that a species is abundant and healthy the more they see them visually represented in the media. Consequences and Possible Solutions Avoid gendered messages that associate idealized masculinity (culturally and biologically) with animal use or abuse (ex: meat-eating, hunting, domineering over domesticated animals). Compassion and ecological responsibility should be gender-neutral traits. Avoid sexualizing animals or using them as symbolic stand-ins for human sexual attributes (ex: equating chicken breasts with human female breasts). Use language that acknowledges that animals are sentient individuals not objects. Refer to them as “he/she/them” not “it,” “who” not “that,” and “someone” not “something.” Consequences and Possible Solutions Restoring the animal integrity – is (re)introduction of the animal as an important agent in our lives. Co-dependence, co-evolution, and co-habitation. Reflecting the importance of the animal as not a divided entity, but a companion that is unified with us. Consequences and Possible Solutions Pondering upon the human-animal distinction Capacities like consciousness, emotion, and language have been displayed by numerous animals, even those we don’t typically consider intelligent, like insects and fish. We share about 60% of our DNA with chickens. We seem to be more alike than we are different. What, then, are the essential differences between humans and the rest of the animals? The believed-to-exist differences shape the way we approach, represent, and interact with non-human animals. To note… Various cultural, religious and philosophical traditions suggest that human beings are the highest, most advanced species on earth. Speciesism – presumption of human superiority over other animals Speciesist beliefs are pervasive, institutionalized and publicly accepted with the help of media There are many consequences of the antrophocentric point of view on the well-being of both animals and humans, for the justice, peace, and ecological survival. To note… We should not forget that “the animals of the world exist for their own reasons. They were not made for humans any more than black people were made for whites or women for men” (Spiegel, 1996). The Downtown Review Volume 2 Issue 1 Article 4 October 2015 Ancient Animal Ethics: The Earliest Arguments for the Ethical Consideration of Nonhuman Animals Joshua J. Sias Cleveland State University Follow this and additional works at: https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/tdr Part of the Ethics and Political Philosophy Commons, History of Philosophy Commons, and the Other Philosophy Commons How does access to this work benefit you? Let us know! Recommended Citation Sias, Joshua J.. "Ancient Animal Ethics: The Earliest Arguments for the Ethical Consideration of Nonhuman Animals." The Downtown Review. Vol. 2. Iss. 1 (2015). Available at: https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/tdr/vol2/iss1/4 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Scholarship at EngagedScholarship@CSU. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Downtown Review by an authorized editor of EngagedScholarship@CSU. For more information, please contact [email protected].  Sias: Ancient Animal Ethics Philosophical concern for animal ethics, or the arguments for and against the inclusion of nonhuman animals in moral realms of ethical consideration, has taken off in recent decades. Topics pertinent to animal ethics, such as vegetarianism and animal experimentation, are no longer confined to the classroom as people throughout the world and across disciplines understand the treatment of nonhuman animals to be an issue of great concern. For many, it may appear that animal ethics is a relatively new area of contention, but this could not be further from the truth. Like many issues of philosophical intrigue, animal ethics can be traced back to antiquity. While this is widely documented and studied in the east, through models stemming from the discourse between Vedic schools of thought and competing ascetic traditions, the academic study of antiquity in the west has largely ignored early thinkers and arguments concerned with animal ethics. As this is the case, the question of whether or not the first western philosophers concerned themselves with the wellbeing of nonhuman animals follows. This paper will cover early animal ethics through the works of Ancient Greek philosophers. By marking early trends in thought and linking them to popular views of modern animal ethics, an idea as to how the current state of massive NH1 animal subjugation, suffering, and slaughter came to be can, in part, be exposed. Since religion is generally concerned with ethical conduct, and because the Ancient world was largely structured around religious conceptions, this work will supplement ethical arguments with religious material. That said, those arguments that are explicitly based on religious notions are not the focus of this paper, and instead are utilized to explain the ways in which trends of thought were established and popularized in antiquity. As the tension between religion and ethics (used here as a form of philosophy opposed to theology) is a motivating factor behind the rise and decline of animal ethics, this feature is necessary in order to provide an accurate account of the material presented. I. From Religion to Philosophy: Animals in Ancient Greece During the Bronze Age of Ancient Greece, a variety of diets were present. The early Greeks utilized both farming and animal-breeding for food, although the majority of people lived on a vegetarian diet. The primary reason for the prevalence of vegetarianism was the fact that flesh was both “scarce and expensive.”2 Meat was eaten mostly by elites and landowners; occasionally it was enjoyed by the average citizen in feasts and religious ceremonies.3 As meat was the product of ritual sacrifice, the language utilized for the procuring of flesh was the 1 Throughout the body of this paper I will preface the term “animals” with “NH”, denoting “nonhuman”. This inclusion is becoming more common in works of critical animal studies and, as it helps reinforce the nature of humans as animals to those readers who mistakenly remove human animals from their shared realm with other species, I too have chosen to employ this usage in my writings. 2 Lonsdale, Steven H. “Attitudes Towards Animals in Ancient Greece.” Cambridge University Press. Greece and Rome, 2nd series, Vol. 26, No. 2 (Oct., 1979). 02 Oct. 2014.. p. 147-148. 3 Ibid. Published by EngagedScholarship@CSU, 2015 1  The Downtown Review, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 , Art. 4 language of sacrifice. The consuming of flesh was entirely a product of religious practice.4 Despite the customs of religious sacrifice in Ancient Greece, there were groups of people who abstained from eating flesh on their own accord; the earliest and perhaps best known of these groups were the Orphic and Pythagorean adherents. Before describing the views of early vegetarian groups of Ancient Greece, it is important to understand what lead them to their ethical stance. Primarily, there exist two beliefs that help form the early vegetarian’s commitment: the myth of a Golden Age and the belief in the regeneration of the soul. The Golden Age is best known through the work of Hesiod, although it is also mentioned to a lesser degree in writings before and after Hesiod’s eighth century composition Work and Days.5 Hesiod describes the earliest race of mortals, created by the gods and ruled by Cronus. These people are said to have lived peacefully beside NH animals. The earth had enough vegetation to sustain the hunger of all animal life and so no animals (humans included) were driven to feast upon the flesh of others.6 Life was easy and hard work was not necessary. For these reasons and more, Hesiod depicts the earliest of ages, the Golden Age, as the greatest age known to humankind. With the fall of Cronus and the rise of Zeus, Hesiod portrays the coming of the following ages: the Silver, the Bronze, and the one in which he lived, the Iron Age. With the fall of the Golden Age came corrupt periods of greed and violence. It is in these later ages that Hesiod believed humans began to eat the flesh of other animals.7 Third- century philosopher Porphyry also utilized the Golden Age in his works on animal ethics, describing in his On Abstinence from Animal Food the correlation between war and the onslaught of animal killing. Porphyry declares, “together with the slaughter of animals, war and injustice were introduced [to the world].”8 The second of the influential religious views that facilitated the evolution of animal ethics is the belief in reincarnation. Generally associated with eastern religious thought, reincarnation is the idea that one’s soul leaves the body at the time of death only to enter the physical form of another entity. For some early Greek religions, such as the Orphic and Pythagorean traditions, 4 Gilhus, Ingvild Saelid. “Animals, Gods And Humans: Changing Attitudes to Animals in Greek, Roman and Early Christian Ideas.” New York: Routledge, 2006. p. 115. 5 Hesiod. “Works and Days.” trans. Richard Lattimore, in “Hesoid”. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1962. Lines 109-201, p. 31, 33, 35, 37, 39, 41. Reprinted in: Walters, Kerry S., and Lisa Portmess., ed. “Religious Vegetarianism: From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama.” New York: State University of New York Press, 2001. p. 17-22. 6 Ibid, 17. 7 Walters, loc. cit. 8 Porphyry. “On Abstinence from Animal Food.” trans. Thomas Taylor. London: Centaur Press, 1965. p. 145-8. Reprinted in: Walters, Kerry S., and Lisa Portmess., ed. “Religious Vegetarianism: From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama.” New York: State University of New York Press, 2001. p. 23-5. (Quotation on page 25.) https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/tdr/vol2/iss1/4 2  Sias: Ancient Animal Ethics this belief meant that NH animals shared in the cycle of regeneration.9 According to this doctrine, all animals should be treated as one would treat one’s own species. This position is supported by the belief that the essential aspect of life (the soul), being a shared characteristic of human and NH animals, is the criteria in which ethical consideration is granted.10 Empedocles, influenced by Orphic and Pythagorean beliefs, describes the importance of abstaining from killing animals by noting that the action must also be understood as potentially taking the life of one’s own family member.11 With this belief, the act of eating flesh is made synonymous with acts of cannibalism. While religious beliefs are capable of initiating philosophical inquiry, and thus ethical action, they are also capable of acting as barriers of separation between groups of beings. This truth is apparent in the fact that Hesiod’s depiction of the Golden Age did not necessarily give him a sense of ethical responsibility to NH animals. As Newmyer notes, Works and Days includes what constitutes as “the earliest extant Greek attempt to differentiate human beings from other animals on philosophical ground.”12 Hesiod does this by arguing that Zeus gave humans justice, a gift not shared with other species.13 However, problems arise when arguments from regeneration of the soul are used to influence better treatment of NH animals as well. For example, the Orphic belief in reincarnation also consisted of regeneration into plant life, a problem that plagued the issue of dietary sustenance.14 Nonetheless, the origins of vegetarianism in the west seem to be historically tied to religious roots. Considering the central role dietary concerns play in shaping the human’s overall treatment of NH animals, a philosophically satisfying answer to the question of dietary ethics was an issue of concern for the earliest philosophers of the west. 9 Many scholars believe that Pythagoras’ conception of reincarnation was influenced by Indian sages and/or Brahmins he came across while in Egypt. Stuart offers a convincing argument for this stance in his chapter titled Pythagoras and the Sages of India. Stuart, Tristram. “The Bloodless Revolution: A Cultural History of Vegetarianism from 1600 to Modern Times.” New York: W. W. Norton, 2007. 10 Dombrowski, Daniel A. “The Philosophy of Vegetarianism.” Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1984. p. 35. Also see: Riedweg, Christoph. “Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching, and Influence.” Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002. p. 68. 11 Kirk, G. S., J. E Raven and M. Schofield. “The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts.” 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. p. 319. 12 Newmyer, Stephen T. “Animals in Greek and Roman Thought: A Sourcebook.” New York: Routledge, 2011. p. 82. 13 Ibid, 83. 14 Dombrowski, loc. cit. Published by EngagedScholarship@CSU, 2015 3  The Downtown Review, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 , Art. 4 II. Pythagoras on Animal Ethics Many scholars of ancient philosophy consider Pythagoras to be one of the most influential philosophers of all time.15 For many writers, including Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius, Ovid, and Voltaire, Pythagoras was considered the first great advocate for vegetarianism.16 This is supported by the use of the phrase “Pythagorean diet”, which was used well into the nineteenth century to refer to people we now label “vegetarian.”17 Although many modern critiques dismiss Pythagoras’ vegetarianism due to its connection to religious belief (i.e. reincarnation), many writers noted that Pythagoras also abstained from flesh on grounds unrelated to reincarnation.18 These reasons included health concerns, as well as more philosophically-founded ethical considerations.19 15 In History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell famously credits Pythagoras as being the most influential philosopher of all western philosophy. Many others follow, noting his mathematical discoveries, religious beliefs, and the links he made between these otherwise different areas of study. Russel, Bertrand. “History of Western Philosophy.” ed. 1972. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972. p. 29. 16 Dombrowski, op. cit. 37. 17 Phelps, Norm. “The Longest Struggle: Animal Advocacy from Pythagoras to Peta.” New York: Lantern Books, 2007. p. 27. 18 It is important to mention that there are accounts of Pythagoras that paint him as a conscious meat eater, forbidding the eating of some parts of animals (or only some animals). In these accounts Pythagoras is not remembered as a vegetarian. Aristoxenus described Pythagoras’ diet as having included all forms of animals except ox and sheep (Dombrowski, 48-9). Aristotle and others reported that Pythagoras and his followers only forbid the consumption of certain parts of animals, including the sexual organs, legs, and brain (Riedwig, 37). Attempting to resolve this apparent contradiction, Riedwig hypothesizes that two different groups of Pythagoreans (followers of Pythagoras’ teachings) existed beside each other, with those who took part in society and hence the practice of animal sacrifice common then, permitted to eat flesh. Others, such as Pythagoras himself, were isolated from society and therefore expected to follow a strict vegetarian diet (69). The view that different sects of Pythagoreans existed is supported in the works of Iamblichus. In these ancient works one finds a description of a class of Pythagoreans known as akousmatikoi and another, differing description, of a second class referred to as the mathematikoi. The mathematikoi are reported by Iamblichus as having been the stricter of the Pythagoreans, meditating rigorously and never consuming flesh (Dombrowski, 47). The confusion between the various accounts of Pythagoras’ life seems to be a result of these conflicting sects of followers and the mischaracterization that each view somehow represented that of Pythagoras (Dombrowski, 49)*. Nonetheless, most of the textual evidence of Pythagoras’ life points to a Pythagoras that abstained from flesh-based foods. One observes Pythagoras’ attitude towards nonhuman animals in more than his dietary preferences. For example, Gorman reports that “apart from Aristoxenus […] all other ancient evidence indicates that Pythagoras refused to sacrifice animals”. Instead, he chose to sacrifice herbs, incense, and metals (75). In addition, Eudoxus of Cnidus describes Pythagoras as a person who “avoided any contact with cooks and hunters” (Riedwig, 37). These descriptions add to the collection of accounts suggesting that Pythagoras abstained from eating flesh. * Dombrowski elaborates this point through the example of Aristoxenus who became aware of Pythagoras’ teachings through the society of Pythagoreans that was present in his time. These Pythagoreans Aristoxenus encountered lived at Tarentum prior to the fourth century. The Tarentum Pythagoreans aligned more with the akousmatikoi, eating flesh and living as part of a larger society. 19 Dombrowski, loc. cit. https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/tdr/vol2/iss1/4 4  Sias: Ancient Animal Ethics Touching on the philosophical reasoning behind Pythagoras’ diet, belief in reincarnation was only one of many reasons for his socially-odd practice of vegetarianism. For Pythagoras, Diogenes Laertius writes, the soul of the human consists of three qualities: “intelligence (nous), passion (thymos), and reason (phren).”20 NH animals are said to possess both intelligence and passion, characteristics of the animal’s soul that do not belong to plant life. It is intelligence and passion, the element of life that allows for sentience, that makes the mistreatment of NH animals unethical.21 In this way, Pythagoras is documented as having understood, ahead of his time, the idea that humans are essentially one of many species of animal. Gorman notes that: For Pythagoras man was intimately linked with the rest of the animal kingdom and did not enjoy any innate superiority over the other animals. Man was not the image of the divine, but a living being whose only distinguishing characteristic was his greater ability to be trained and participate in intelligence.22 Gorman continues by explaining Pythagoras’ view that animals are indeed rational, demonstrating how Pythagoras defends this claim by referring to the nonhuman animal’s ability to be trained. In addition, Pythagoras believed that animals were capable of speech, although most people (himself being the exception) could not understand their language.23 According to Iamblichus, Pythagoras only differentiated between human and nonhuman animals on the grounds that humans used both internal and external speech, whereas nonhumans used only internal speech. This seems to follow from the myth of the golden age, in that it was believed that all animals, humans included, originally shared the same language and spoke to each other directly.24 In fact, this myth is not unique to Pythagoras, as Plato references the same point in the Statesman.25 20 Diogenes Laertius. “Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Volume II.” English trans. R. D. Hicks. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970 ed. “The soul of men, he says, is divided into three parts, intelligence, reason, and passion. Intelligence and passion are possessed by other animals as well, but reason by man alone” (VIII. 30. p. 347.) As Dombrowski mentions in his footnote to his discussion on Pythagoras’ distinctions between the souls of living things (p. 151, note 64), Diogenes Laertius does not elaborate on what distinguishes nous (intelligence) from phren (reason). Plato orders these characteristics of soul differently, as will be shown in Section III of this paper. 21 Ibid. 22 Gorman, Peter. “Pythagoras: A Life.” London: Routledge, 1979. p. 185. 23 Ibid. 24 Dombrowski, loc. cit. 25 Plato, “Statesman.” Plato. trans. J.B Skemp. The collected Dialogues of Plato: Including the Letters. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns., ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994. 271d-4c. Published by EngagedScholarship@CSU, 2015 5  The Downtown Review, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 , Art. 4 Although plant life does not contain the elements of intelligence and passion, plants too are granted concern by Pythagoras as they have life and create the environment from which more life can spring. For these reasons, Pythagoras is often considered one of the earliest proponents of environmental ethics, teaching his students to use only those plants that are absolutely necessary.26 This distinction and its link to vegetarianism is notable in its foreshadowing of our current state of environmental devastation; climate change, deforestation, and massive resource consumption (amongst other things) are all linked to the production of animal-based foods.27 In addition to the arguments pertaining to the soul mentioned above, Pythagoras was a staunch advocate for the popular ancient doctrine of moderation.28 His diet was understood to further the moderate way of life in that it utilized less resources and kept him “hunger-free.” This ability to eat moderately is described by Porphyry as having helped Pythagoras maintain an ideally constant physical and mental state that gave him the capacity to meditate for long periods of time.29 As this discussion demonstrates, Pythagoras and the different accounts of his views on animals and diet show that the issue of animal ethics can be traced back to the very beginnings of western philosophical thought. His immense influence on the philosophy, mathematics, and the sciences that followed is undeniable, yet his views on animal and environmental ethics seem to be largely absent in much of the modern literature discussing his influences. Pythagoras’s influence is perhaps best represented in the works of Plato. As the works of Plato, along with his student Aristotle, are largely considered essential to the development of western philosophy, it is useful to take a closer look at what these two important writers have to add to the long history of animal ethics. III. Plato and Aristotle on Animal Ethics Issues most often considered in works on animal ethics, such as the aforementioned dietary and ritualistic use of NH animals, are not directly mentioned in the works of Plato or Aristotle. For Plato, references to diet are found scattered across his many works. Animal ethics in itself does not seem to have been an issue with which Plato concerned himself. Despite Aristotle’s reputation as the first person to study animal life in a biological sense, he too fails to commit himself to the inclusion of NH animals in his ethical writings. In order to get an idea as 26 Dombrowski, op. cit. 51. 27 It is not my intention to include an account of the link between animal agriculture and environmental issues here; I am merely linking the ancient thoughts of Pythagoras to the modern science that supports his theories. Much has been written on this topic. If you are interested in reading more about this topic I suggest the work of John Robbins and Richard Oppenlander. 28 Dombrowski, op. cit. 45-46. 29 Riedwig, op. cit. 32-33. https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/tdr/vol2/iss1/4 6  Sias: Ancient Animal Ethics to what these philosophers thought about NH animals and their place in moral consideration, one must look at their intellectual influences as well as the nuances of their body of work. As has been presented, Plato’s link to Pythagoras is well documented. In addition to Pythagoras, Plato’s affiliation with Socrates, his teacher, is well known. For Socrates, many NH animals share virtues with humans. For example, Xenophon notes that Socrates thought lions were courageous animals.30 Xenophon also remarks that Socrates is of the mind that humans are “happier” than NH animals for the following reasons: 1. Humans alone have “upright posture.” 2. Humans alone have hands. 3. Humans alone have unique tongues that allow for speech. 4. Humans alone have the ability to procreate at their own will, whereas other animals are limited to particular times of year. 5. Humans alone have received “the most excellent soul,” a soul that can perceive and worship the gods.31 Ultimately, Socrates believed in a hierarchy put in place by the gods through the endowment of the special features listed above, which allow for humankind’s position of superiority over all other animals. From this, Xenophon determines that Socrates put forth the idea that NH animals live amongst men and women to be used as wished by humankind.32 It is worth noting that this argument remains popular with theologians today, often based on the misconception of religious “domain” and its placement in biblical texts.33 Nonetheless, the question remains whether Plato aligned his own views with Pythagoras or Socrates. Although no one can be sure of Plato’s eating habits, his work suggests that he followed in the steps of Socrates and advocated an early form of the argument from domain. Dombrowski, for example, utilizes Plato’s Statesman, Laws, and Republic in forming this conclusion.34 The Statesman mentions “hunting and butchering” animals without a note of disapproval from Plato; the Laws follow suit in regards to breeding animals for consumption. In fact, both the Laws and 30 Dombrowski, op. cit. 56. 31 Newmyer, Stephen. “Animals in Greek and Roman Thought: A Sourcebook.” New York: Routledge, 2011. p. 54. Excerpt included taken from: Xenophon, “Memorabilia (Recollections of Socrates).” I. 4. 11-14 Dombrowski lists reasons 3-5 (p. 56). 32 Dombrowski, op. cit. 56-57. 33 The prevalence of “the domain argument” in modern discourse is no doubt influenced by Thomas Aquinas and Augustine of Hippo as well, this will be discussed at length later in this paper. For a more academic approach to arguments for and against ‘ethical responsibility towards NH animals from a religious perspective, I recommend the works of Norm Phelps and Andrew Linzey. 34 Dombrowski, op. cit. 58. Published by EngagedScholarship@CSU, 2015 7  The Downtown Review, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 , Art. 4 the Republic refer to flesh as a “wholesome food.”35 The inclusion of these remarks suggests that Plato did not share Pythagoras’ concern for NH animals. The answer to Plato’s textual adherence to human dominance is perhaps best sought in his work on creation, the Timaeus. Containing Plato’s thoughts on the tiered soul, the Timaeus presents what can be understood as a combination of Pythagoras’s conception of the soul and Socrates’s (as presented by Xenophon) idea of the divine element inherent in humanity. The highest form of soul, what Plato refers to as the “immortal soul,” possesses an element of the divine that can only be found on earth in the souls of human beings.36 NH animals share a “mortal soul” with humans, allowing for the capacity to feel pain and pleasure. The soul’s least favorable characteristic, that which should be subjugated to reason, is the desires. Referred to by Plato as “bestial,” the desires are described in relation to the NH animals that possess them.37 The idea that humans are the carriers of superior souls allows for the construction of a hierarchy of ethical importance, giving humans a higher degree of reason and rationality. This is understood by many ancient philosophers to be a divinely-decreed allowance to use all other animals as they please.38 The main criticism of Pythagoras and the earliest vegetarian proponents, which is that their arguments are invalid due to reliance on religious belief, is equally applied to the argument inferred from the works of Plato. The shared characteristic between these two arguments on the use of NH animals is their dependence on notions of “soul” which are undoubtedly built on a religious ground. This is represented in the divinity afforded to the human soul by Socrates and Plato. On the other hand, further complicating a thorough interpretation of Plato’s views on animals, certain passages within his body of work suggest that Plato was sympathetic to arguments for the abstinence of animal-based foods. Returning to the Republic, Glaucon is depicted in conversation with Socrates discussing what foods would be eaten in the ideal city, 35 Ibid. It is worth mentioning that Plato does display some apprehensions against hunting in his Laws, but only certain forms of hunting are considered unlawful. These include forms that consist of little to no skill (824b-c). Regardless, it appears that Plato is concerned with the human’s training opposed to the NH animals involved in the hunt. Newmyer, op. cit. 87-8. 36 Plato. “Timaeus.” trans. Benjamin Jowett. The Collected Dialogues of Plato: Including the Letters. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns., ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994. [69c-77c]. 37 Gilhus, op. cit. 205. For a further depiction of Plato’s use of “animal” as a derogative metaphor for those aspects of oneself that must be subjugated to reason, see Gilhus chapter on Internal Animals and Bestial Demons (p. 205-26). 38 Dombrowski, op. cit. 60. https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/tdr/vol2/iss1/4 8  Sias: Ancient Animal Ethics Plato’s Republic.39 Socrates remarks with a list of foods, none of which are flesh.40 Following this, Glaucon asks what would be eaten in a city of pigs (the opposite of the Republic). To this Socrates answers “dishes and sweetmeats such as are now in use,”41 and shortly afterwards he notes that a city that eats meat requires more doctors than one that does not.42 In a way, the ideal vision Plato depicts in his Republic aligns to the mythic Golden Age, where humankind ate only plants and never partook in flesh. Adding to Plato’s Pythagorean beliefs, the transmigration of a human soul into a NH animal is also well-covered in Plato’s works.43 From what has been presented here, it can also be argued that both Plato and Pythagoras noted the health benefits of vegetarianism. Adding to this, Plato’s Laws depicts Clinias speaking favorably of earlier philosophers who abstained from flesh, saying that their vegetarianism is both a “current” and a “highly credible” tradition.44 The fact that Plato included the opinion of Clinias in the Laws without added disapproval or critique suggests that Plato agreed with the positive remarks concerning the vegetarian philosophers. As this is the case, one is left to wonder why Plato puts forth varying conceptions of vegetarianism. The ideal society for Plato is a vegetarian state yet he fails to live up to this ideal, instead allowing the use of NH animals for consumption. Moving on to Aristotle, his emphasis on the observable sciences and his habit of criticizing those theories that relied heavily on religious belief should make for a more practical approach to the subject under review. However, whereas Plato had little to say about NH animals and humankind’s ethical responsibility towards them, Aristotle had even less. Similar to Plato, Aristotle’s arguments concerning animals are based on his conception of the soul, the only