GBIO70 REVIEWER.pdf

General Biology (GBIO70) 1ST QUARTER MODULE 1: CELL THEORY & CELL ORGANELLES BIOLOGY- “Study of Life” BIO - Life | LOGY - Knowledge ~ What is life? ~ “Everyo...

General Biology (GBIO70) 1ST QUARTER MODULE 1: CELL THEORY & CELL ORGANELLES BIOLOGY- “Study of Life” BIO - Life | LOGY - Knowledge ~ What is life? ~ “Everyone has a basic understanding of what is alive and not.” CELL THEORY MODERN CELL THEORY ★ This is a fundamental scientific ★ Genetic information is passed theory in biology that provides a through DNA or RNA during cell general understanding of life on division. Earth and its characteristics. ★ Cells of all organisms within a ★ The discovery of the cells by Robert similar species are mostly the same, Hooke led other biologists to both structurally and chemically. propose the tenets of Cell Theory. ★ Energy flow occurs within cells through photosynthesis and CLASSIC CELL THEORY mitochondria. ★ Proposed by the first three tenets, Theodor Schwann, Matthias “The genetic similarity between a human Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow. and a human is 99.99%” Viruses are not living things; they are DISCOVERY OF DNA not made of cells. They are just proteins. ★ Promoted the addition of the following three tenets, the Modern CELL THEORY CHECKLIST Cell Theory. All organisms are made up of cells. Cells are the basic units of life. CLASSIC CELL THEORY All cells come from preexisting cells. ★ All organisms are made up of cells. Genetic information is passed ★ Cells are the basic units of life. through DNA or RNA during cell ★ All cells come from preexisting cells. division. "Omnis cellula e cellula" Cells of all organisms within a similar species are mostly the same. Energy flow occurs within cells. CELLULAR ORGANELLES ORGANELLE CYTOPLASM Little organ, membrane-bound Organelles + Cytosol ELLE = little/small liquid inside the cell “gel-like substance.” Each organelle is enclosed by a membrane To have protection and for them to move freely on the cell with cytosol. 1 1. NUCLEUS (Information center of the ➔ NUCLEAR PORES “Checks who cell) goes in and out of the nucleus.” ➔ NUCLEAR ENVELOPE is continuous with the ER (Endoplasmic reticulum) FUNCTION ➔ Houses chromosomes; contains nucleoli ★ NUCLEOLUS/NUCLEOLI Site of ribosome/chromosome production ★ NUCLEOPLASM Matrix inside the nucleolus STRUCTURE ➔ Two membrane (Nuclear envelope) “cells can be multinucleated (skeletal ➔ Outer and Inner muscle cells) or absent of nucleus upon maturity. (red blood cells)” DNA - Deoxyribonucleic Acid RNA - Ribonucleic Acid 3 TYPES OF RNA ★ MESSENGER RNA (mRNA) ○ Specifies the sequence of amino ★ RIBOSOMAL RNA (rRNA) acids in proteins; ○ Joins with protein to form the ○ Building blocks of DNA/RNA/ subunits of ribosomes (formation). protein. ★ TRANSFER RNA (rRNA) ○ Participates in the assembly of amino acids during protein synthesis. ○ Peptide chains proteins 2. RIBOSOME: PROTEIN FACTORIES ★ Protein factory; ★ Can be found in cytosol or bound to RER; ★ Two subunits (small & large) are made of ribosomal RNA and proteins. 3. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM ★ STRUCTURE: ○ Biosynthetic factory; ○ Extensive network of membrane and bounded tubules and sacs; CISTERNAE: end of the ER sacs/folds; ○ The membrane separates the lumen from the cytosol (Inside of ER); ○ Continuous with the nuclear envelope. 2  ★ FUNCTION OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM SMOOTH ER ROUGH ER Source of Energy: Contains ribosomes; ➔ Synthesis of lipids; Capable of protein synthesis; ➔ Metabolism of carbohydrates; Making glycoproteins; Detoxification of drugs and poison Produces new membranes; Adds CHO (aldehyde) to proteins 4. GOLGI APPARATUS / BODY (Shipping and receiving center) ★ STRUCTURE ★ FUNCTION ○ Stacks of flattened membranous ○ Modification of protein, sacs; carbohydrates on protein, and ○ Has polarity (CIS and TRANS phospholipids; faces); ○ Synthesis of many polysaccharides ○ TRANS SITE: Produces the → sugar/carbohydrates; vesicles. ○ Sorting Golgi products, which are then released in vesicles. ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM Organelles that form a system to produce, package, and export cellular products — Golgi and ER 5. LYSOSOMES ★ Digestive compartments ★ Made from vesicles produced by Golgi apparatus have very low pH and store powerful hydrolytic digestive enzymes in an active state ★ STRUCTURE ★ FUNCTIONS ○ Membranous sac of ○ Breakdown of ingested hydrolytic enzymes (in substances, cell animal cells) macromolecules, and ○ Catalysts: speed of metabolic damaged organelles or process recycling PHAGOCYTOSIS AUTOPHAGY Process of Lysosome digesting food. Lysosome is breaking down damaged organelles. 3 6. VACUOLE ★ Maintenance compartments; ★ Filled with water fluid (cell sap) gives ★ Plant cell has a large central vacuole; added support to the cell; ★ Large membrane-bound; ★ Contains water soluble pigment “Larger than a plant cell due to water and responsible for the color of some flowers photosynthesis, digestion, waste disposal, and leaves. cell growth, and water balance.” 7. PEROXISOME ★ OXIDATION: Gives hydrogen ★ REDOX: Reduction-oxidation ★ STRUCTURE ★ FUNCTION ○ Specialized metabolic compartment ○ Contains enzymes that transfer H bounded by a single membrane; atoms from substrates to oxygen ○ Oxidation enzymes producing H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) 8. PLASTIDS ★ Capture light energy; ★ Responsible for energy production; ★ THYLAKOIDS (Light-DEPENDENT ★ No animal cell can do this because it is Reaction) “Heterotrophic (relying on consuming ○ Membranous system in the form of other organisms to get energy).” flattened interconnected sacs. ★ STRUCTURE ★ STROMA (Light-INDEPENDENT ○ Two membranes around fluid Reaction) stroma, which contains thylakoids ○ Contains the chloroplast DNA stacked into grana. ribosomes; ○ Contains chlorophyll for ○ Fluid outside thylakoids; photosynthesis ○ It has DNA, ribosomes, and inner fluids. TYPES OF PLASTIDS ★ CHLOROPLAST ★ CHROMOPLASTS ○ Does not absorb the green ○ It contains pigments that result in wavelength (the main reason why yellow, orange, or red color. plants are green); ★ LEUCOPLASTS ○ Produces sugar and starch. ○ Colorless plastids that synthesize and store starch and oil. 9. MITOCHONDRION (Powerhouse of the cell) ★ STRUCTURE ★ INTERMEMBRANE SPACE: Narrow ○ Bounded by double membrane region between the inner and outer (phospholipid bilayer); membranes. ○ Inner membrane has infoldings (cristae); ★ MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX: ○ Outer membrane is smooth function; Enclosed by the inner membrane; ○ Cellular respiration. ○ Contains many enzymes as well as mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes. 10. PLASMA MEMBRANE (Cell Barrier) ★ Consist of double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids with various proteins; ★ Enclosed by the inner membrane; ★ Selective barrier that allows passage of oxygen, nutrients and wastes. 4 11. CYTOSKELETONS - Structural support - Helps the cell to maintain their structural integrity - Cell motility, cell reproduction, and transportation of substances within the cell TYPES OF CYTOSKELETONS ★ MICROTUBULES (Green in color) ○ Maintains the cell shape and structure; ○ Helps resist compression of the cell and plays a role in positioning the organelles within the cell; ○ Compose the centrioles, an important component in cell division; ○ Make-up cilia and flagella; ○ In humans, cilia are in the respiratory system, fallopian tubes. Flagella are used by sperm cells for locomotion. ★ MICROFILAMENT (Red in color) ○ Made up of actin, a type of protein; ○ Actin fibers are twisted into microfilaments; ○ A large component of muscle tissue; ○ creates the cleavage furrow during cell division. ★ INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT ○ Made up of fibrous subunits of a protein called KERATIN; ○ helps maintain cell shape and structure; ○ Resist tension (pulling apart); ○ 0-12 nm; ○ Help anchor organelles; ○ Link cells together (cell-to-cell junctions). MODULE 2: CELL TYPES AND MODIFICATIONS The similarities between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes… ★ They share an identical genetic language (both contain DNA), ★ A standard set of metabolic pathways (they can do protein synthesis because both of them contain ribosomes), ★ And many common structural features (they both have ribosomes, plasma membranes, and flagella). ★ They both have a permeable bilayer (plasma membrane), which may be because not all Eukaryotes have a cell wall surrounded by a rigid cell wall. 5  The Differences Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes… PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES Bacteria Animals, Plants, Protists, and Fungi No true nucleus but a nuclear-bound area, Has a membrane-bound true nucleus which is fixated on its DNA 3 Layers (Capsule, Cell Wall, Plasma 2-1 Layers (Cell Wall and/or Plasma Membrane) Membrane) Has less organelles Has more organelles Do not have membrane-bound organelles; it is It has membrane-bound organelles in its only fixed in the cytosol cytosol and complex cytoskeletal proteins. Small (relatively remained the same since its Big (It has more complexity in its structure reiteration on Earth) and function, because they are more modern) Small Ribosomes Big Ribosomes Relatively Small DNA (600,000 b-8 Mb) The more complex the cell is, the more it has more Mb (12 Mb = simple yeast cells) Fast evolution, fast adaptation (it is more Complex multicellular cells suddenly appear older than the Eukaryote cells) 600 billion years ago Not capable of sexual reproduction (divided Capable of sexual reproduction (dependent on by simple fission, does not contain sex cells) Mitosis and Meiosis) Uses both cytoplasmic movements, cilia They only have flagella (hair-like projection), and flagella (tail-like projection) Flagella: used for locomotion (simpler Flagella: used for locomotion (complex movement) that is centered around movements), it has a nucleus that issues out propulsion, has a lot of flagella more complex demands to move precisely and only contains one flagellum It is less crowded in the cytoplasm It is more crowded in the cytoplasm Has pilus (hair-like projection that can be Has gametes/sex cells/body used in the process of conjugation: to share cells to reproduce its DNA with the recipient bacteria) One copy of their chromosomes (asexual Two full sets of chromosomes (sexual reproduction, cloning) reproduction) 6  The Differences Between Plant Cells and Animal Cells… PLANT CELLS ANIMAL CELLS Chloroplast No Chloroplast Contains a cell wall and plasma membrane It only has one layer (Plasma Membrane) Does not have janitor cells Contains a lysosome, centriole, and peroxisome Contains a structure called plasmodesma (facilitates Does not contain plasmodesma oxygen and carbon dioxide) Has a bigger vacoule Has a smaller vacoule TYPES OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS: THREE-DOMAIN TREE BACTERIA ARCHAEA EUKARYA LUCA Prokaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell Longest common known (Common Bacteria) (Extremophiles) (Plant/Animal Cell) ancestor between the three (Most likely prokaryotic) It is the first on the Then the second Then the third to Anaerobic: Mode of respiration tree come out of the that does not rely on oxygen evolution because Earth had no oxygen yet (Aerobic: relies on oxygen) Heterotrophic: They have to rely on consuming other organisms to get energy (Autotrophic: Capable of producing their food, ex: photosynthesis) 7  TYPES OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS: SIX KINGDOMS OF LIFE ARCHAEBACTERIA EUBACTERIA PROTISTA Domain: ARCHAEA (very Domain: BACTERIA Domain: EUKARYA ancient) Common bacteria we see Organisms that have animal-like or Evolutionarily related species that everyday plant-like traits but cannot be classified live in highly inhospitable into animal or plant kingdom EX: E-coli Is not capable of sexual reproduction/photosynthesis FUNGI PLANTAE ANIMALIA Domain: EUKARYA Domain: EUKARYA Domain: EUKARYA Saprophytic organisms (Consumes Plants Animals dead organisms, Earth’s decomposers) They produce pores for reproduction EX: Mushrooms EXTREMOPHILES OF ARCHAEBACTERIA EXTREMOPHILES Prokaryotes that live in deadly or extreme conditions for other prokaryotes and eukaryotes to live in. Especially since it is fatal for humans to survive. METHANOGENS HALOPHILES ACIDOPHILES THERMOPHILES HYPERTHERMOPHILES CO2 and H2 gas to Live in highly Acid-loving Live at very high Live in the hydrothermal methane (Ex: Mars) salty prokaryotes that temperatures, like vents of the ocean floor environments (Ex: thrive at pH 0 volcanoes (121℃); the Dead Sea) The temperature to sterilize surgical instruments 8