The Urban Villagers: Group and Class in the Life of Italian-Americans PDF

The Urban Villagers Group and Class in the Life of Italian-Americans UPDATED AND EXPANDED EDITION by Herbert J.Gans lf!EJI THE FREEPRESS NEW YORK LONDON TORONTO SYDNEY TOKYO SINGAPORE  To My Mother THE FREE PRESS...

The Urban Villagers Group and Class in the Life of Italian-Americans UPDATED AND EXPANDED EDITION by Herbert J.Gans lf!EJI THE FREEPRESS NEW YORK LONDON TORONTO SYDNEY TOKYO SINGAPORE  To My Mother THE FREE PRESS A Division of Simon & Schuster Inc. 1230 Avenueof the Americas New York,N.Y.10020 Copyright © 1962 by The Free Press of Glencoe Copyright© 1982 by Herbert J.Gans All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. THE FREE PRESS and colophon are trademarks of Simon & Schuster Inc. Manufactured in the United States of America paperback printing number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Gans, Herbert J. The urban villagers. Bibliography: p. focludes indexes. 1. Sociology, Urban. 2. Italian Americans- Massachusetts-Boston. I. Title. HN80.B7G2 1982 305.8'51'073 82-8577 ISBN 0-02-911250-8 AACR2 ISBN 0-02-911240-0 (pbk.)  The Peer Group and the Individual 75 tionships. For example, one West Ender asked his neighbors, with whom he had long been friendly, to be godparents for his newborn child, in order to maintain contact between the two families after CHAPTER The Peer Group 4 redevelopment. In adult life, West Enders have little contact with their actual godRarents, since the older generation is not part of the peer group social life. and the Individual Included among other unrelated individuals are friends of long duration, as well as more recent friends. Though th~ -l~tter may benewcomers to the group, they are likely' to have been known to the group before, because, as already noted, everyone knows of a everyone else. Consequently, nearly everyone is poteiiua( friend wno can~301n a peer group at any time. This happens most often after people have extended help to each other, met at ceremonial occasions, or have had prolonged contact, for example, as hospital patients. R~~ruy_nQt ~~rre1"at~ however,.~ ap§seH-con- sdous "mixing with people" is explicitlyrejected. A mobile woman wfioliacfTeTrtne-West TiicrsuggestecftoW est: "'End relatives one night that women should get out of the house and mix with peo- Peer Group Life ple. But her relatives, discussing it afterwards, thought that this f d It West End lif e is £ eer·~~"'-$---~.-·~ uroun sodabilitv. By belief was a result of her being childless, for which they pitied T~~~fl !_!_-eanthee~tertaI~ing-and party-giving of_t~e her. Similarly, when a relocation official spoke to a West Ender soaabihty I do not m h. formal conversational acuv1ty about the new social experiences he would encounter in a new 'ddl l Nor do I mean t e m ·1· l d neighborhood, the West Ender replied angrily: "I don't want to mi e c ~s.. ks well below occupational, fam1 ia , an that the middle class r~1:.. tance For the West Ender, meet any new people. I get out quite a bit all over Boston to see my tiv1t1es m impor self:im_P~ov~ment ;~ized athering of a r~~!r~!lc~ngin~ e-!:' brothers and sisters, and, when they come over, we have others in, soc1ab1ht IS a rou rs -anct-1nend;- that.~~~~~~al e neighbors. You can't do that in the suburbs.". ---·-·~· -r· --- One..could ~ ~----·----·-·~··.h· almost say that t e m eetin gs of the group d f Neighbors also may be included in the group if they are friends, times a weeK.. lif h t they are the en or t they are not eligible merely because the].live next door. As ~.,~~--·~c *-. al center of.West End e, t a are at u,e vtt ~'"".,,,,.,,,__,m:r,.c,"", '.2"";'"'"''.ch other everyday 1. -·=-~=- = --- activ1ues are a m eans. ·1 k.' h1· bors, they may havefrequent physical ~oniact-,that-might wh 1. 15 based onman~· "tate the social contact prerequisite to friendship. 2 But it also Memb1=rship m the group ~--"~T~ husband and wi reveal differences in background and behavior that could already noted, brothers, sister~ and co;:s ;oup also includes mmares"' (female). perhaps because the term godparent is not quite the -and their spouses-are at t e core.} regularly Godparents and because there is no other English word that quite describes the rela ds h O may come ess. parents and fnen w n uasi-famihal sta ~. d who because of their closeness, are give.q th chil most of the tenements, neighbors were residents of adjacent buildings Anen s , t a wedding or to e God parentage is awarded to best men a od arents· in short, to on a common fire-escape or airshaft. In the building in which I of one's godparents, as well as:o :ru~r. in middle-class Amer ens faced each other, thus giving housewives frequent opportunity contact. There was less contact with people on other floors of one's ple who become "friends _of t e arr;; !s a way of cementing g, since they were seen only fleetingly when using the stairs. kinshi terminology.1 It ts also use. p.. tances in w ic h' h West Enders still " I This is one of the few ms f. their "compares Itali~n term to describe a phenomenon. They re er to 74  The Peer Group and the Individual 77 76 The Peer Group Society preclude friendship.a In the West End, neighbors quite often were t1v1ues even though they are likely to be present more often than also socially dose because of the previously noted tendency of people with familial responsibilities. Our own participation in one landlords to rent apartments to relatives or friends... of the peer groups was due in part to the fact that we were new to Potential peer group members are many, but their number is Boston and, having few friends in the city, were thought to be isolated somewhat like the single people in the group. The initial effectively reduced by the requirement ~!;f~~e -~':st--~. acVgfound, interests, anct att1 invitation was extended, however, because we were neighbors, and because the wives, who had met across the fire-escape, took a tude;;'what the want to liking to each other. The peer group meets regularly in the kitchens and living rooms of innumerable West End apartments. There are no formal invitations or advance notifications; people arrive regularly one ere 1s no or more evenings a week. Generally speaking, the same people · conversation may unkind to other ethnic come the same days of the week. Certain evenings are thus re exclus1on, h' th served for being with the peer group, and the gathering is called groups, they do run the risk of being antagonized. Even wit m e Italian group itself, those who are more or less acculturated than off only for unusual events. the rest stay away. The former are uncomfortable because they are While a few people may come for dinner, the gatherings usu- "too American"; the latter, because they become embarrassed wh_en ally begin shortly afterwards and others may drop in all through the group makes fun of old-fashioned people. A w~man ;u? the evening. The talk goes on for hours-often past midnight- even though the men have to be at work early the next rooming. old-fashioned ideas is more acceptable than a man, sine~ s e is likely to keep quiet and not upset the group. Also, bemg old. As noted earlier, the sexes remain separate most of the evening, fashioned is more of a virtue for women. The people who are and, even when they gather around the kitchen table for coffee and mobile are kidded so much about their wealth that th_eycome only cake, the men often sit at one end, the women at the other. Some rarely. Very mobile women are likely to be antagonized. by refer people bring their children, especially if they do not have older ences to wild or unwomanly ways, or by scornful stones about ones who can stay home with the younger ones. The children sit "society ladies." Those of lower status than the r~st of the group and listen until they become sleepy, and then are sent off to the are not rejected unless they are "bums," but remain away because bedrooms until their parents leave. they may be weighed down by problems that do not concern the The peer group conversation covers a relatively small number topics: accounts of the participants' activities since the last others. 'f h d ering; news of people they all know; plans for special events Single individuals often are part of the group even 1 t ey o not meet the standards of compatibility. Included because they are as weddings, showers, and other celebrations; current topics alone-a dread scourge in Italian culture-t1:,ey nevertheless re-. t,erest; stories and anecdotes; and memories of younger days or main on the fringes of the group's conversational and other a ts of the more recent past. Quite often, a current happen- set off talk about the past, and people contribute stories ship. is discussed further in Herbert J. Gans, "Planning and Social Journal of the American Institute of Planners, vol. 27 (196l), PP· U t 3 The role of physical propinquity and background homogeneity ~n fri~ l_el events that took place earlier. From there, it is easy into talk about the good old days. The conversation also to reports-and judgments-of deviant behavior. In addi- at pp. 134-Hl5. is exchanged, but there is little systematic attempt at 4. The reasons are discussed on PP· 79, 94.  ---------~ ----------~ 78 The Peer Group Society I The Peer Group and the Individual 79 problem-solving. Usually, people discuss problems encountered. by others, especially those who are not present at the gathermg. fessional expert provided by the outside world.5 Thus the con- Problems common to the group as a whole also enter the conversa- s~Jt~!!.-()~ n~~t~-n~!wor! of ~fL£!~~E!._lJ,K~~~~~I:ld tion. I was always surprised, however, that what I t?ought t~ be f91·matcmmunity the most pressing problem-redevelopment and relocation-received ~-·'- --·,n,""s-e1 er their own or those of the outside-"worict relatively little attention. Most West Enders felt that as ~her~ was ?ot reportage and gossip provide entertainment and drama about one's own group of the kind that is available about muc h thev, could do about this, there was little sense d. m d1scussmg · f other groups in soap operas and similar mass media fiction. an unpleasant reality. This principle also covers the 1scus~1ono problems in general. The men talk about cu~ent haJ:>pemngs at As the hours pass, the talk shifts back and forth. And while work, in sports, in the area, and occasi~nally 1?. the city and the there are people who dominate the conversation, and others who t But there is little concern with pohtics, except when contribute little, there is generally an opportunity during the Jong ooun ry.. h W E d , evening for everyone to talk, either to tell a story or to deliver events have occurred that illustrate once agam t e est n _ers belief that politics is corrupt. The women talk abou_t housekeermg, an opinion. Conversation is interspersed with discussion and ch 1'ld -rearmg, and other subJ·ects relevant to their occupational argument, although the argvments are generally over matters of role. f current or past history rather than over opinions. Should there be Much of the conversation is devoted to the exchange o re- radical disagreement about a substantive topic, say, race rela- portage-and gossip-about people known t~ th~ grou_r. As ?oted tions or birth control, the conversation comes to a sudden halt and earlier, everypeet group is tied, through k~ns~1~, fne~dsh1p'. or the subject is changed. For reasons that will become apparent, other connections to many other groups and md1v1duals m a giant West Enders are not attuned to the give-and-take of discussion, network that extends far beyond the West ~nd. Thus, someone and, since the expression of highly diverse opinions on important may have a report about someone else, even 1£ ~e does not know issues could split the group, this is thus avoided by changing the subject. the individual personally. For example, one evenmg, the_conversa- tion concerned a woman who had recently had a child, many The conversation therefore is cued to topics that will keep years after having the last one. One of the women at the table. exchange and individual contributions flowing; those that do not reported that she had heard about the blessed event, though she lend themselves to this social function are quickly dropped. Mid- had never met the mother, and did not kn?w that. she was ~he y in the study, for example, we spent two weeks in Puerto Rico, hostess' neighbor. As it turned out, she was fnendly with a relative , after our return, were invited to tell about the trip. As it of the new· mother, and had heard about it from her. T?at she ed ~ut~ however, there was little interest either in the trip, or d'd not know the mother personally was irrelevant; knowmg her escnpt1ons of Puerto Rico; West Enders were more curious as si~ter and some other relatives was quite sufficient. ow it felt being back in the group. The story that my wallet The exchange of news has a number of functions. It ke~ps n stolen on the last day of the trip did arouse great interest, people up-to-date on what is going on among present and potential: "Ormore than an hour afterwards, people talked about thefts peer group members, and defines or redefines the place. of the they had experienced or heard. This topic in tum led to reporter and his audience in this large group. It also ov1des necdotes about the honest poor, who gave rewards for social control, since deviant behay1or!!'.!.~E9 t d nd evalu..L!:.,.~···~··---. of lost or stolen items, and the greedy rich, who did q~Iy: A~d,atuie'same~ffme, it considers new ideas t_hat be useTul to the group. Moreover, it supplies info~auon a emonial and holiday occasions, the gathering of the services and "experts" in a culture that suspects or re1ects the ore formal. On birthdays, saints' days, other religious I,  The Peer Group and the Individual 81 SO The Peer Group Society so as to be able "to visit." It was expressed more strongly by peo- holidays, and of course at weddings, christenings, _and fi:stcom ple who feared that the destruction of the West End would tear munion celebrations, everyone in the entire family arcle tnes to be them away from their group and leave them isolated. It was ex- present, including member~ of the _parental gen~ration. ~t such pressed perhaps most vividly by a corner boy who explained to times, the food is more lavish and gifts may be given; Dunng the his friends that a prison sentence was bad "because it separates year, the group also may go out to restaurants or night clubs to you from friends and family." watch a popular performer.... Yet the ~~~fil~ is _imp~~2L2!l!~~Y~~iLP!2Yi~es Peer group life also extends beyond t~e family c1_rcle,and some West Enders participate in informal cliques and m clubs made this much~d compan~~~Jl~'L~"~~~~~1!elpngi~gnes~ buf6ecause it alsoaIIows1ts members to be md1viduals and to ex- up of unrelated people. For example, unmarried me_n may spend pr~---:Tnlact,rtis 0 only withln-the,peer- gro~p their evenings ~ in which they play cards dun_ng the week, that peoplecan ao so. In the middle class, people can exist as in and hold dances and parties on the weekends; marned men may dividuals outside a group, and enter a group to accomplish per go out once or twice a week for a night with the boys. In addi- sonal as well as shared ends. Among the West Enders, however, tion many women belo to info -and nameless--clubs that people grow up within a group and use it to be individuals, with mee~ weekly, weekly, or monthly at each other's houses on a ~o- the result that this group cannot work together. This is the basic tating basis, and hold dinners at downtown restaurants on special paradox of the peer group society. In unraveling it below, I hope occasions. Some of the clubs, many of whose members have known to show also some of the differences between West End and middle- each other since adolescence, were formed after the women became class social structure and personality. wives and have continued to meet regularly for more than a Althoug~ ~e peer. group is the most important entity in the decade since then. In number, and in the amount of time devoted West Enders hfe, he 1s not merely a robot whose actions are de to them, however, these groups are much less impartant than the termine~ b_Ythe group ~r _the cultural tradition. In fact, peer family circle. The remainder of the chapter refers mainly to the group life m many ways 1s JUSt the opposite of the cohesive and latter. tig_htly-knit ~oup. that has se~~d as a model for descriptions of fru~~ rel~~~ons 1~ o~~er soc1et1es.I~~~~!!~ ~f The Individual and the Group ;tndmdu~ls Jockeymg for ~~~"~ct,.~o~~~.~~tt~l!!~}ndeed, to outs1 e o server, West Enders appear to be involved in a Although peer group sociability is prevalent in middle-class r ending dialectic: individual actions take them out of the society, it is not as impartant as it is in the West End. I have al P momentarily and are followed by restraints that bring them ready indicated the central role of the peer group th~oughout the only to be succeeded by more individuating talk or behavior. life cycle, and I have hinted repeatedly at the emotional as well group_ members act as if they were held together by ties of as social impartance of the group in everyday life. One fact, then, ~h1ch they alternately stretch and relax, but rarely break. should be obvious: West Enders live within the group; they don 1s_m~st visible among the teenage and young adult action like to be alone. Thus, what has been noted earlier about tee Wit~m the group their behavior is a series of competitive agers-that they are quiet and passive by themselves and bu ~ mtended to assert the superiority and skillfulness of into activity only with their peers-is true almost as much am dual over the other, which take the form of card games, adults. Indeed, for most West Enders, people who have b al scu~es, and ~ndless verbal duels. Through bragging, trained from childhood to function solely within the group, adang, and msultin , individuals ~uieirown alone brings discomfort and ultimately fear. The discomfort. nd expressed by housewives who got their housework done qu I I I  The Peer Group and the Individual 83 S2 The Peer Group Society which are bought regularly at Easter and Christmas and for other achievements of others. Only when there is a common opponent special ~ccasions. The men do the same with their cars, either by doesthe~oalesce, but even then this is not always likely to purchasing new ones, or by continuously polishing the old ones. happen. For example, among the young adults whom I observed The women like to display their cooking and baking skills. And at a tavern where they hung out nightly, a basketball team bro_ke the most talented of both sexes try to become entertainers. Thus up because the better players did not want to play on a team wuh although an interest in art is considered effeminate, there 1s nC:. the poorer ones, who would deny them the opportunity to dis- thing wrong if boys want to become singers of popular music, for play their individual talent~... this is an opportunity for self-display. In fact, most of the success- While there is no physical compeut1on among the adult groups, ful white singers today are Italians, and it is no accident that they and even card games are rare, similar competition does exist, al· are as much creators ~£ a distinctive personal image as they are though in considerably muted form. One of the women's dubs in purveyo~s of songs.. Itahans ~ave done well in contemporary popu- the area made an explicit agreement that members should not lar music because 1t emphasizes the development of an individual compete among each other in the purchase of house furnishings image and style more than technical musical skill.6 and furniture. At the same time, however, one of them told me The need for display within the group is so strong among West that she spent more than a day to bake and c!ean h~use when_ :he Enders, in fact, that they find themselves unable to save because dub met at her apartment. She did not consider this compeuuve of their high expenditures of food, clothing, and other expenses of activity. Most of the competitive lay takes lace in co1!.~~dg~, group life. I heard some criticism of recent Italian immigrants who through ~'£:i~:!!,er s failed to participat: i.n this pattern, and who saved their money to c ~ ~~" a,t_ent91ain Jhegr-0:i:p buy a house after hvmg only a few years in America. Although re- -The exchange is not vicious, development would force many renters to become homeowners, ~wed ~lf-centereirpeople to call attention to themselves, and th~ need to save money for the future had become apparent, or to make others look bad. In fact, any attempt by an insecure the native-born ~est Enders were unable to withdraw sufficiently person to build himself up in ~e gr~up at o~hers'. expense is con- from th~ group d~splay to. put any money aside. Nor would they sidered out of place. It is politely ignored m his presence, and ave seriously considered this alternative. harshly criticized when he is out of earshot. It should be noted that what I have called conspicuous con- Group members-be they adult or adolescent--display them- mption and display is not to be equated with the kind of con- selves to the group, to show their peers that they are as good if not ption competition which has been noted among the nouveau slightly better than the rest, but then they yield the floor to. t~e , or among the American Indian tribes given to pot-latches. next person and allow him to do likewise. The purpose of this is West Enders do not seek to outdo all others, and thus be the to create mild envy among the rest of the group. The settlement r numerically the greatest in these displays. Rather, they want house worker who pointed this out to me was in charge of a kinder- themselves off, without questioning the right and ability of garten at the time, and illustrated her point by noting that whe~eas e else to do much the same. Jewish mothers came to find out how their children were doing, other expressions of West End individualism are the re and what help the teacher could give them, Italian paren~ came f formal de endence on -t~,,&!'02,e~and the em;ehasis7n find out how well their offspring were doing compared with ot Despite the fact that-West Ender; and to get praise about them from the teacher. Individual display takes place not only in group interactl despite the popular stereotype, there was little interest in. ~ Wes~ E?ders. If suc;h interest had existed among Southern but also in many other ways. 0 is cons icuom,_ cons ans, tt disappeared with the first generation. West Enders of both sexes like to display themselves 1n new 1. I I  The Peer Group and the Individual 85 84 The Peer Group Society so because she felt it to be the proper thing. This brother had mar- live so much within a group, th~c~~~!1~!Jhm~!~~~ ~~?t ried an upwardly mobile woman, and was not part of the imme- w~~,!i~nd on i;!~,!,!:~· P~ople say that "in the last analysis, diate family circle. you have to depena on yourself. They are l~~~J~,J:~Ja.y,ars ~hen. obligation~ concern authority figures and hierarchical from others, even within the family circle, and much more so from relationships, _the re1ection of dependence becomes stronger, and organized charity. The emphasis on independence is based _P~tly often evolves mto fear of domination. Thus, whereas West Enders on a realistic appraisal that others can extend only a limited will subordina~e th.emselves.to some~ne whom they recognize as a amount of help, and that it would be unrealistic to depend on leader, they will b1tt:rly reJect the mdividual who is imposed as them. When economic deprivations strike one member of a low a leader from the outside-or who tries to impose himself. income population, they are likely to hit others as well. Moreo.ver, As rel~ti~nships within. the peer group society are expected to if other troubles arise, such as illness, they are apt to be serious be equahtanan, no one 1s permitted to dominate anyone else. ones. Although West Enders will offer and accept help, th:1' ~o Someone who.attempts to do so is suspected of wanting to exploit, not cherish being dependent on others. They want to reroam in- to get something that he does not deserve and cannot get in any dependent, {or accepting aid is thought _to reflect on the stren~th o_ther :'ay. _This attitu~e, which governs almost completely rela- of the individual, and is thus a reflection on self-respect which t1onsh1ps with the outside world, also crops up in dealings with places the dependent person in an inferior position._. other West Enders. For example, one morning, two cars approached Moreover, giving and receiving--of he~p o": gifts--mvol:es ~he each other on a West End street temporarily restricted to one lane individual in a spiral of reciprocatory obhgauo?'s. The_ obhgat10n and came so dose that neither could pass the other. A five-minute may be latent, in which c~se peo~le f~el a de~ue to give an~ re- discussion then followed of who would back up to let the other ceive, and enjoy the resultmg _reciprocity: Or _it may be m~mfest, through. At the height of the argument, one said to the other, thus becoming a duty. In this case reciprocity can tum mto a "we've been friends for years but you can't command me." Such burden, and people try to escape involvement. This happens most struggles are frequent when West Enders relate to each other in often with representatives from the outside world, like welfare.roles that are outside the normal range of those encountered in agencies and settlement houses, who want to give aid in exchange eer group relations. Thus, if landlords who invited friends to 7 for deference or loyalty to institutions. e apartments in the~r buildings had to act as landlords, by rai- Among close friends and relatives, goods and services are ex- the rent or by cuttmg down on maintenance, it was often done changed freely and obligations remain latent, ~nless one or the e cost of broken friendships. other person falls seriously behind in reciprocatmg: or unles~ the Ithough the p~er group is a theater for individual expression, exchange becomes competitive. Should someone reciprocate with a also charactenzed by strict control of deviant behavior. This more expensive gift than he originally received, he may be sus- , the more important when individualistic str~i; central pected of showing off, or of trying to make the othe~ per~on look group, for there is always the possibility that the group may bad. If it continues, this can lead to an eventual alienation from ted, w~ich in turn would shut off further opportunity the group. ual display. The major mechanisms of social control are When relationships are not dose, obligations are manif~st._For e ex ectation of criticism, and the not always successful example, after a man had done some electrical work for his sister, 1 uals to maintain self-control. -"·-~-- she invited him to dinner several times as payment for the wor knows e~yone else, life is ;n open book, and -which he had done for nothing. Although she was not formall are h~rd to hide. This means that such acts are com.- required to reciprocate, since he was her brother, she wanted to outsi e the reaches of the group-as in the case of ?. See Chapter 7, I  The Peer Group and the Individual 87 86 The Peer Group Society ~r~eii;_so~~er"s~i~~s!-~';:t from the individual ]limself. He ro- adolescents who do their misbehaving outside the West End---or Jects ~n t~e neighbors his underly1ntiea~i'7ii~-h;"hi~7;u might that they are not committed at all. As noted earlier, much of the do _evil things or harbor evil motives. For although West Enders group conversation is devoted to judging be~avio:, a~d any un- believe thatb hfate. regulates actions over which thev' have no say, usual behavior, whether deviant or innovating, 1s hk.ely. to be.. t h~1r own e a~or 1s thought to be self-determined. For example, criticized. Jokes and wisecracks, a p_olite way o~ _questioning. de- crime, such deviances as homosexuality, overt forms of mental ill- viant behavior, usually suffice to bnng the md1v1dual ba:1- mto ness-and even fits of depression-are thought to be caused by line. Similarly, the individual is expected to keep up W1th the Jack of self-control. activities of the group, and the pattern of individual dis~lay. The The West Ender therefore is frequently concerned over his person who is too noisy or dominating is suspect, but so 1s the one ability to control himself. 8 Among the adolescents and the action- who is too quiet. The hostess who sets too ~avish ~ ~able is criti- seeking adults, the main concern is to stay out of "trouble"-which cized but even more so is the person who 1s unw1llmg to enter- means not o~ly to avoid getting caught by the police or by other tain ~r feed the group in the style to which _it is accust_om_ed.. age~ts of s~c1al cont~ol, ?ut also not going out of control in epi- But as so much of life is based on routine, there 1s little mcen- sodic behav1~r, for t~1s might detach the individual from the group. tive for nonconforming behavior. Thus most conformity is quite Among routme-seekmg people, uncontrolled behavior is less of a voluntary. But West Enders also regulate their cond~~t by iff':'olun- problem. Their concern is to avoid getting into situations that tary conformity of the type expressed in the phrase ~at ww1llth_!:_ could be misinterpreted. In short, the individual must control n~·" Indeed, the expectations of what other people him_seUs_othat he cannot be suspected of negatively evaluated be- will think are extremely harsh; they assume the blackest thoughts havior, either by the group or by himself. and deeds possible. For example, a neighbor who had recently had Th~ definition of deviant behavior comes initially from the a baby carried the baby carriage up several flights, rather than group itself, and the group encourages individuals to shame each leaving it in an empty store that served as storage room ~or several other into conformity through overt criticism. As in all other adjacent apartment buildings. She justified ~er behavior ~y _ex- gro?~s, this criticism is often anticipated by expectations in the plaining that, since the storage r~om :'as not 1n her own bmld~ng, d1v1dual. Thus, one West Ender said one night, when he was people might think she was gomg in there to steal something. r to leave the female half of the family circle: "If I don't go Similarly, the woman described earlier who had never entered her k to the living room [and the male company] they'll start talk- relative's apartment because she felt people would _suspect ~hem of ~bout me." ~es~ ~nders seem to differ from middle-class peo- having sexual relations, was certain that they believed this ~o be m that the md1v1dual's own preoccupation with self-control the case :rnyway. Politicians complain that they, too, are believed to act oµly on the basest motives. Whil: the e~aggerated _expecta ,. e concern with self-control is graphically illustrated in Joseph Caruso, est, Ne;" York: Popular Library, 1958. This novel, written by a West tions do constitute a potent control against deviant behav10r, they Wlth a. pries~ w~ose unsuccessful attempt to control impulses of create, at the same time, an unspoken atmosphere of mutual lence dnves bun into renouncing his post. In the end, he returns crimination, in which everyone is likely to expect the worst f:o because of peer group pressure. For empirical studie:i of Italian- everyone else. It must be noted, however, that such expectauo f-contro~ problems, see M. K. Opler and J. L. Singer, "Ethnic Behavior and Psychopathology," International Journal of Social are usually not held about peer group members, but only a \ 2 (1956), PP· ll-22; and Ezra F. Vogel, "The Marital Relation- people who are less close-neighbors, for ~xamp:e· s of E?1oti~nally Disturbed Children," unpublished Ph.D. Dis It is dear that the a f evil motives and deeds s.ard Uruvenuty, 1958, Chap. 6. be I I 88 The Peer Group Society The Peer Group and the Individual 89 :results in highly exaggerated-and somet~~es unw~rranted~x- pectations of what others think ?f him. This m turn 1s an effective Since the main function of the group is to provide an area for device for limiting deviant behavior.... individual display, the members are less interested in activities But whether social control is imposed from w1thln or without, that require working together than in impressing each other. More- the middle-class stereotype of working-class society is in error. What over, if group tasks, especially those of a novel nature, are sug- the neighbors think is just as imponan~ to the. West End~r as to gested, people become fearful that they will be used as pawns by the newest recruit to suburbia. If anything, social ~ontrol is m~re an individual who will gain the most from this activity. Conse- strict than in the middle class, and nonconformity is not as easily q~ntlx,.the2!!ab~lit;x. to IL,atti~ipat~~oint activit~bii: excused. commum or mza · 0 In view of the severity of social control, it would be easy to e This, caricature peer group life as a prison for its members. :o t~e out- per aps, is the peer group society's most serious weakness. sider, the concern with social control and self-control might mdee~ seem oppressive. But he must also take into account that the~e 1s Person-Orientation and Object-Orientation little desire for voluntary nonconformity, and, consequently, little need to require involuntary conformity. Nor do people seem to I have tried to show that peer group life is characterized by a be t ubled by fears about the breakdown of self-control, or about paradox: that the group is used by its members to express and dis- the ;ossibility that they may be suspected of misdeeds. Although play individualistic strivings and that these strivings prevent the these potentialities do lurk under the surface, they do not usually group from acting in concert. A more detailed analysis of the West disturb the positive tenor of group relations. Such fea~s, of_course, Ender's individualism will try to explain this paradox and will may be private preoccupations, less visib_le to the sociologist than also shed some light on his character and personality structure. they would be to the clinical psychologist. Moreov~r, the people By individualism or independence, I mean the attempt by the who are seriously troubled by these fears shun the kmd of group I individua1 to express his personality or idiosyncratic character, to have discussed.. achieve what he believes to be his own aspirations, and to. feel Tensions and problems exist in the peer group,_as 11: every oth~.himself to be a distinct entity apart from the group. At one level b they are overshadowed by the gratifications f analysis then, there is a separation-and sometimes conflict- group, u t that f th"it provides for the individual. Perhaps the best illustration o 1s tween individual and group. At another level of analysis, how- was given by a young man who was suffering fro°: an ulcer, and it can be shown that the patterns with which individualism was faced with a choice between his health ~nd h~s group. ~ h~ pressed are themselves group products, that is, roles whose explained it: "I can't stop drinking when Im with my fnends, nt is part of a shared culture. I eaant d drl'nk like they do and when.. I'm alone I ,.,,take care of my. order to describe the relationship between peer group and uker. But I don't care if it kiils me; 1£ 1t does, thats it. d~-and to c~mrare it to the group-individual relationship In summary, social relationships _wi_thin_ the peer group follo~ middle class-it 1s helpful to contrast two kinds of individ- a narrow path between individualistic display ~nd. stnctiy : mod~ of behavior, object-oriented and person-oriented.10 forced social control. The group is set up to provide _its rnem!. _ct10n between them can best be described by differences with an opportunity for displaying, expressing, and actmg out eir ons. Object-oriented individualism involves striving to- individuality as long as this does not become too extreme. h' Chapters 5 and U. As a resuit, the peer group is unable to work together to ac ~: are ideal types, and also polar ones. Ideal types oversimplify red- a common goal unless it is shared by all members of the gr exaggerate differences between people to fit the dichotomoW1 these faults, however, the distinction is a useful one.  90 The Peer Group Society The Peer Group and the Individual 91 ward the achievement of an "object." This may be a moral ob- ject, for example, a principle; an ideological obj:ct, such as "under, cemed about what common action will do to them as individuals. standing"; a material object, such as level of mcome; a cultural Th~s the _two kinds of aspirations are radically diJierent.12 To object, such as a style of life; or a social object, such_as a care:r or the ob1ect-o:nented, person-oriented people seem to be without a status position. Although people strive after a vanety of objects, a!pirations, to lack ambition, an~ to be unable to defer gratifica- they tend to verbalize ideological and moral ones more than the tmn. Conversely, to t~e person-onent~d, those who strive for object material and social ones. goals seem cold and mhuman, pu:rsumg selfish aims at the expense 'What unites this diverse set of aspirations is that each is aimed of o~he:s, and unabl~ to enjoy life as a result. Both perceptions t~ward ,.an object or object-goal that can be conceptu~lize~ in a are hmtted. Person-oriented people do have aspirations for which self-conscious and deliberate manner. In order to achieve 1t, the they strive in their group-where these are not very visible. But individual may have to detach himself from some groups, or at- these gratifications are precisely those which the object-oriented tach himself to others. For example, if he is seeking a ~eer, he think sho~ld be deferred fo~ object-goals. Object-oriented people may have to give up childhood friends who are _not ~ursumg on:, choose.t~e1r groups more deliberately-which makes their striving and join with other individuals who share with him only this more vmble-but once they do, they too develop affectional ties and deri_ve enjofment from th: group much like their opposites~ common object... Person-oriented individualism also stnves, but not for obJect If anythmg, their group behavior is more altruistic, precisely be- goals. Here, the overriding aspiration is the desire to be a person cause they do not need to rely on any one group to express their individuality. within a group; to be liked and noticed by mem?ers of a gr_oup whom one likes and notices in turn. Now, wantmg to be liked Person- and object-orientation are modes of behavior; they can and noticed is also an object, and people join groups for this pur- 12. The distinction between person-orientation and object-orientation is a pose. The difference between object-orientation and person-orien- somewhat different way of dealing with phenomena described by such tradi- tation is that whereas the former exists prior to and apart from a tioi1a} sociological dichotomies as Gemeinschaft-Gesellschaft, mechanical-organic group, the latter is intrinsically_ tied ~o, and is itself a product of, emotional-rational, and ascription-achievement. It has been inspired most di: participation in the group. Ob3ect-0mmt~d people may ~nter se~- y, however, by Merton's distinction between "locals" and "cosmopolitans." developi~g_his di~hotomy, Merton suggests that for loeals, social relationahipl! ondary groups or reshape primary ones m or~er t~ a~h1eve ~he!r the pnnc1pal aim, and that ideas are used as means to them. For cos. object goals; person-oriented ones develop their aspira~10ns w1thm olitans: on ~he other hand, ideas are central, and social l'elationships a primary group in which they are members, and which they are mamly with people who share the same ideas. See Robert K. Merton not interested in leaving. Without such a group, they have no s of Influence," in his Social Theory and Social Structure, New York; aspirations, and for them, being alone is undesirable precisely_be- Press of Glencoe,_2nd ed:, 1958, pp. 387--420,especially at pp. 396-399. to sar, the two dichotomies are dissimilar in many ways. Person- and cause aspirations are so closely tied to the group: 11 The obJect- tatlon may also be compared with Ephraim H. Mizruchi's distinc- oriented people will join a group in order to achieve a comm?n "means-valuation," and "ends-valuation," "Social Structure, Sue- purpose· the person-oriented ones need the group to become m- and Struc~ured St~ain in a Small City." Paper read at the 1961 dividmtls. Consequently, when a set of person-oriented peop:e must the Amencan Soc1ological Association, mimeQgraphed, p. 5. Miz- act together, they lose interest; they become "selfish," that is, con· tes m~ans-v:11uation with the lower class, ends-valuation with the :pecially m connection with attitudes toward education. Unless 11. In Parsons' conceptual scheme, object-o~iented people mo_vei~to ~~:er, is used c:irefully, however, it runs the risk of characterizing alistic grouni. in order to achieve; penon-onented ones are ued ascnp le as laartiop ibed as ob'ect-0riented. In order to partici- adults are ill-at-ease with people who try to take their point of 1 have previously descr rf t~ individual must develop some view, for example, with well-meaning social workers or doctors pate in this type of group_ i e, eabout his activities and about who assume the West Enders to have a sense of identity to the h t d self-consciousness. f benefit of which they can contribute. It is for this reason that West I'' :,, d:tac men _an t the creation of a self-image. This sel himself, which_ leads o d be restricted only to those roles Enders prefer "to look out for themselves," as if to say that others image is often nnpe:rfect, ~n. mayhich are required for participa- ~nnot know us, since we do not know ourselves. The £ear of being d onality characteristics w. d f ne stems from the same source, for confrontations with the self an pe.rs th 1. di idual to confront new km s o tion. But it does allo~ e ~ th v ut too much difficulty or feeling perplexing in the absence of a self-image. people and new expenences Wt o The object-oriented individual develops a self largely from the of threat.. d West Ender, however, does not live in _this ·ence of perceiving how others see him. West Enders, how- The person-onente.. ou s that are not given are not very adept at judging others' conceptions of them. society. His. social !i!e takes !;a~:i~: P::;.::el.d~g. Indeed, much of ready noted, they have highly exaggerated notions of what to cooperative activity o~ p 1 1 i. b!t time-tested reactions to the ·ghbors think. And insofar as they have developed a gen other, it is based less on empirical observation of how his behavior is based on. ri;~uc~i~:hood-a type of social life that people he bas known slll. the detachment demanded in volun them, than on how they feel others see them. Instead of does not encourage or req_uire expectations from the actions of other people, they Socia! Psychology of George Herbert Mea4, ch expectations from projections. The evil thoughts they 16. Ansel~ S':1'auss, ed: The Press Phoenix l\ociks) 1956, P· Jdv. _This ers to harbor about them stem from their own fears Chicago: Umven1ty of Chica~. ( bl h. Mind Self and Saaety.. m ilation of Mead's wnttngs, nota y is , loss of self-control. And the preoccupation with self. Ill a co p. 243 Quotations are from Mead. }7. St:raus..-i, op. cit., P· turn. is encouraged by the lack of a self-image. 18. Ibid., pp. 232-234.  The Peer Group and the Individual 101 100 The Peer Group Society.. d attitudes of others pensable skill for people moving out of traditional settings." 19 Difficulties in perce1vmg the acuons an l d well His interview respondents could not conceive of roles other than. with people who are not a rea y create problems m contacts. f 'liar norms. This their own, and of having opinions on matters relevant to strange d who operate on the basts of un anu roles. West Enders have gone a step further. They can place them- known, an h West Ender to limit his interaction to peer groups encourages t e. el 1_ d in which the dangers of selves into other roles, but if they have to empathize, they redefine. h" h eryone ls w l ,._nown, an. hf 1 the role so that it fits a familiar situation. Thus, whereas the Mid- m w ic ev... ed It also explains the fa1t u exaggerated perceptx.on are m.1mm1~a~ West Enders. dle Eastern peasant would not be able to see himself as mayor of adherence to a routme among so y. f others the his town, a West Ender can describe what he would do if he were f the difficulties in the perception o. , Becau~e o e is articularly sensitive to bemg hurt by mayor of Boston. He would redefine the job, however, into that person-0nented typ p. lf h is· therefore quick to detect of the mayor of the West End. d to defend h1mse , e. them. In or er nd with selftshness himself. This, In short, the object-oriented individual can be described as selfishness in others and to :espo t' 'ty For when the individual having a dualistic self, which allows him to be sensitive to the ac- edes cooperative ac tvt " tions of others as they become part of himself. He is able to be of course, finnp h·mself an d h'is seIf 1·nterest, he "plays it safe, and cannot d e ne 1.. h' h might impinge negatively on the self-conscious and develops a self-image or sense of identity. When. group act1v1ty w 1c h h the communication process between the "I" and the "me" is dis- re1ects any... k ,, espeo·allv by people w om e f arf l of being ta en, J turbed, he becomes self-centered. The person-oriented type, on the self. He is e uThis helps to account for the conception that ~he does not know... d that he must either defend hnn other hand, develops a monistic self, which makes it difficult for outside world is exploitmg, a?-. the individual to differentiate between his own and others' view of. tay out of it entrrely. self agamst it, or s W t Enders shrink from involving him. The lack of a clear self-image encourages and requires dis- In actual practice, th~~i akes them out of their familiar social play. Thus the communication process between the "I" and other themselves in roles that _w1 t e t re 1·nto new roles was reflected people is limited as much as possible to routine behavior among d nclinat1on to ven u. context. Th e 161. h W t End· nf'ople were genuinely intimately known people. When this process is disturbed, the in- d ard leavmg t e es ' ,- dividual becomes selfish. in attitu es tow f into other neighborhoods. I frightened at the thoughtd o gomgboth elderly who had moved In describing the West Ender as lacking a self-image or sense ld f tw West En women, , was to ~ o.ddle- and upper-middle-class suburb, before re- ilf identity, I d-0 not mean to suggest that he feels himself to be to Brookhne, a nu lh h they had felt safe on West paired, for he moves in a society in which self-consciousness is development actually began. A t to~g that the streets of the suburb so urgent. He is at a disadvantage only if and when social con- ht they were cer am ons force him to become a full participant in the outside End streets at mg ,. k ti·roe before they would ven- t d gers and 1t too some. were full o~ an d". 1. ti·on toward new roles 1s also 20 At present, he is able to participate minimally in that hem The 1smc ma d , and he can protect himself from it by suspicion and rejec- ture out on t. le have for their childhood an reflected in the great nostalgia _p~op when roles seemed few and sim- as well as by the support he can get from the peer group adolescence, for these were per10 s ple.. West Enders' self bears considerable s~milarity versely, from a different value position, an object-oriented My view of the Daniel Lerner and his assOC1", could be described as impaired, because he lacks such abili- to the findings of a study made by L described this longing totally to a group, retaining childhood friends, M 'ddl E tern peasants. emer. ates among i e as_. thize to place themselves in el Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society, New York: The Free lation as lacking the ability to empa" m' athy is the capad coe, 1958, p. 50. the positions of ot h ers. A s h e p ut 1t ', e. P. This is an ind. ibility will be discussed in Chapter 12. the other fellow s s1tuat10n. to see onese lf m  - 102 The Peer Group Society r. The Peer Group and the Individual 103 and expressing one's individuality among such people. He would m Chapter 3, and will show in more deta'l. also find it difficult to exist in a peer group society, since it pursues are broader social and cultural £ h 1 m Chapter 10, there so few activities aimed at object-goals. Needless to say, he is not administer the upbringing of t;;c:-~dat shape the parents who asked to do so. them to we thi. l i ren, and that encourage The object-oriented self is geared to a society in which people another. s parucu ar mode of child-rearing rather than are able and need to place themselves in the roles of others. The person-oriented self, found in a social system in which social inter- course is restricted to familiar persons, has less need to be empathic. Indeed, the pattern of projecting one's own expectations on others is possible only in a social group in which behavior and attitudes are similar; otherwise there would be disastrous consequences. The I inclination toward selfishness and away from self-consciousness seems to be functional in a low-status group where survival can- not be taken for granted, and where solutions are beyond the con- trol of the individual or group. In such a milieu selfishness enables the individual to keep up in the struggle for survival, and the lack of self-consciousness minimizes preoccupation with insoluble dif- I ficulties. Instead of melancholy there is acting-out behavior; neuro- ' sis is rare; and difficulties that cannot be surmounted conclude with a psychotic breakdown instead, extruding the individual out of the group entirely. Although this may not be beneficial for the individual, it does protect the group, at least over the short range. If social conditions result in the breakdown of a large number of individuals, the group itself will eventually fall apart. The origins of the person-oriented self can be related-and per- haps traced-to child-rearing practices. As I noted in Chapter 3 the West End child is brought up impulsively and according to adult values. Parents do not recognize that he has individual needs, nor do they react to him in ways that would make him conscious of these needs. Also, they do not behave self-consciously toward the child, nor expose him to situations in which they try to see things from his perspective, as do child-centered parents. Thus, the child is not likely to see people take someone else's point of view. Since there is little deliberate teaching by parents, and since the child therefore learns mostly by imitation, he has few opportunities to learn self-consciousness, or to develop a self-image. Needless to say, the explanation of the person-oriented self can; not terminate in child-rearing practices. As I have tried to sugges