Governance and Development Compilation PDF

Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila A Compilation of Topics for GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT November 2024 I ...

Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila A Compilation of Topics for GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT November 2024 I  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila CONTENTS OF THE COMPILATION MODULES Page No. 1. Key Actors in Governance (Part I)...... 1-6 Introduction Government Civil Society Private Sector International Organization International Community in Achieving National Department 2. Key Actors in Governance (Part II)...... 7-15 Media The Role of Citizens Direct Democracy: Institutional and Non-institutional Mechanisms Six Ways to Engage Citizens and Civil Society in Good Governance Programs 3. Theories of Governance and Development.... 16-20 Overview of the Historical Development of Philippine Democratic Politics Governance Development Theories of Governance and Development 4. Governance and Development in Practice.... 21-31 Case Study in Africa Governance and Growth Historical Context Governance Structure Key Institutions Analysis Of Governance Structure In Japan Conclusion Examination Of Policy-Making And Implementation In Different Contexts II  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila 5. Institutions and Governance....... 32-51 Types of Institutions Institutional Frameworks Institutional Performance Role of Institutions in Shaping Governance Outcomes 6. Governance and Economic Development..... 52-58 Introduction Definition: Governance, Economy, and Economic Growth and Development Nature: Governance, Economy, and Economic Growth and Development Role and Importance of Governance in the Economic Growth and Development Definition: Investment, Foreign Investment, Domestic Investment, and Entrepreneurship Foreign Investment Can Significantly Contribute to Domestic Entrepreneurship in Various Ways Advantages and Disadvantages of Foreign and Domestic Investments Philosophers Who Discussed Old Trade, Policies and Agreements Features: Evaluate the effects of Governance on Trade Policies and Agreement Understand in Importance of Good Governance in Achieving Economic Development Goals References.......... 59-60 III  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila MODULE 1: Key Actors in Governance (Part I) THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT I. Introduction The four main roles of government are: they ensure that citizens follow the law; they make sure that citizens do not encroach on each other's rights; they create the laws and regulations of the state; they maintain positive and mutually beneficial relations with the governments of other states. Additionally, our government plays a crucial role in providing public services and ensuring national security, which further enhances societal stability and well-being. By balancing these responsibilities, they contribute to the overall functioning and progress of society. II. Government Government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state. It is the institution that has the authority to make and enforce laws, provide public services, and protect its citizens. Key functions of a government typically include:  Law and order: Ensuring safety and security for its citizens.  Public services: Providing essential services like education, healthcare, and infrastructure.  Economic management: Regulating the economy and promoting economic growth.  Foreign relations: Representing the nation on the international stage and managing diplomatic ties.  Defence: Protecting the nation from external threats. There are many different types of governments, such as democracies, monarchies, dictatorships, and republics. Each has its own unique structure and methods of operation.  The Philippine Government is a democratic republic. It is based on the principles of sovereignty, separation of powers, and rule of law. The government is divided into three branches: 1  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila  Executive Branch: Led by the President of the Philippines, who is both the head of state and head of government. The executive branch is responsible for implementing laws and policies.  Legislative Branch: Consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. These two bodies are responsible for making laws.  Judicial Branch: Comprised of the Supreme Court and lower courts. The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting laws and resolving disputes. III. Civil Society Civil society is described as a ‘dense network of groups, communities, networks, and ties that stand between the individual and the modern state. These groups may include sports clubs, charities, indigenous groups, non-profit organizations, faith-based organizations, foundations, professional associations, and more. Civil society groups help to bring about the interests of citizens and individuals, but tend to act independently of government institutions and businesses. In fact, we’ve identified at least 9 ways that civil society organizations typically engage with the government:  Shaping Policy Civil society groups are often involved in shaping government policy, programs, and strategy through consultation, discussions, and public hearings, with organizations often representing the interests of a broader group of stakeholders.  Lobbying and Advocacy- Influencing the actions of decision makers involved in making policy, such as members of government, in relation to a specific topic or piece of legislation. Advocacy: drawing awareness to/educating the public about a topic or issue, with an aim to cause political action.  Serving on Committees- Sometimes civil society members will participate in working groups or government advisory committees to provide input on specific issues, share advice, or influence decisions.  Promoting Accountability and Transparency Civil society plays an important role in holding governments to account — from monitoring government actions to publicly calling them out with reports that highlight potential issues. 2  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila  Empowering Marginalized People Civil- society organizations are critical to identifying groups that are being left behind, advocating for those whose voices aren’t easily heard, and implementing programs that can offer practical support.  Supporting Emergency Preparedness and Response- Many civil society organizations play an important role in helping governments prepare for (and respond to) emergencies. This might include coordinating a response via their members or community audience, contributing knowledge, spreading awareness, or collecting charitable donations.  Collaborating on Essential Goods and Services many civil society organizations provide essential goods and services to people who would otherwise be unable to afford or access them. This could include health services, food supplies, education, shelter, and security — and is often done in partnership with local government organizations.  Citizen Engagement Some civil society organizations may provide a space for citizens to engage in or monitor government processes, either through formal invitation or in informal environments.  Legal Action When governments act in a way that is unlawful or against public interest, some civil society groups may respond with legal action. IV. Private Sector  The private sector is a key stakeholder in both urban and economic development, being a major contributor to national income and the principal job creator and employer. The private sector provides around 90% of employment in the developing world (including formal and informal jobs), delivers critical goods and services and contributes to tax revenues and the efficient flow of capital.  Further, it will undertake the majority of future development in urban areas, It is increasingly being encouraged to help leverage the opportunities, and mitigate the challenges, of rapid urbanization (see Topic Guides on State Business Relations. Private sector actors are perceived as playing a role in urban governance: they influence whether urban areas develop in inclusive and sustainable ways, and they affect poverty reduction and drivers of fragility and conflict such as unemployment, exclusion and instability.  Interactive planning and decision-making processes are needed to support private sector participation in urban governance and to co-ordinate this 3  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila participation with municipalities. They comments that municipalities can strengthen urban governance in co-operation with the private sector by fostering partnerships and local economic development (LED) strategies that combine local skills, resources and ideas to stimulate the local economy, enabling it to respond innovatively to national and global economic changes.  Develop and maintain infrastructure and services;  Promote and expand existing businesses;  Address inefficiencies in the local economy;  Promote human capital development, to help vulnerable groups especially to participate in the labour market;  Encourage community development by promoting community business and cooperatives, local exchange systems and informal credit etc.;  Promote small, micro and medium enterprises (SMME) through supply-side measures (training, provision of space and facilities for commercial activity etc.) and demand-side measures (reforms to procurement policy to ensure access for SMMEs to contracts);  Attract investment in the city. V. International Organization An international organization, also known as an intergovernmental organization or an international institution, is an organization that is established by a treaty or other type of instrument governed by international law and possesses its own legal personality. Typically IOs (International Organization) are formed by multiple sovereign states to address common issues and facilitate cooperation on a range of matters, including economic development, security, humanitarian aid, and environmental protection. Importance of International Organization in the Role of Government International Organizations (IOs) are important actors within global social governance. They provide forums for exchange, contention and cooperation about social policies. Our knowledge about the involvement of IOs varies significantly by policy fields, and we know comparatively little about the specific roles of IOs in social policies. This volume enhances and systematizes our understanding of IOs in global social governance. It provides studies on a variety 4  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila of social policy fields in which different, but also the same, IOs operate. The chapters shed light on IO involvement in a particular social policy field by describing the population of participating IOs; exploring how a particular global social policy field is constituted as a whole, and which dominant IOs set the trends. VI. International Community in Achieving National Department The international community plays a pivotal role in supporting national development, providing resources, expertise, and cooperation that can significantly accelerate progress. 1. Financial Assistance: Foreign Aid: Providing grants, loans, and debt relief to help countries fund essential infrastructure projects,education, healthcare, and economic development. 2. Trade and Market Access: Trade Agreements: Negotiating favourable trade agreements to reduce tariffs, quotas, and other barriers to trade, allowing countries to access larger markets and increase exports. Market Access: Providing preferential market access for products from developing countries to help them diversify their economies and earn foreign exchange. 3. Technology Transfer: Knowledge Sharing: Facilitating the transfer of technology and expertise to developing countries to improve productivity, competitiveness, and innovation. Intellectual Property Rights: Protecting intellectual property rights to incentivize research and development and prevent the misuse of technology. 4. Capacity Building: Technical Assistance: Providing technical assistance and training to help developing countries build the capacity of their institutions and workforce. 5  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila Institutional Development: Supporting the development of strong and effective institutions, such as governments, regulatory bodies, and civil society organizations. 5. Debt Relief: Debt Reduction: Providing debt relief to reduce the burden of debt payments and free up resources for development. Sustainable Debt Management: Promoting sustainable debt management practices to prevent countries from falling into debt traps. 6. Global Governance: International Cooperation: Encouraging international cooperation on issues such as climate change, environmental protection, and human rights to create a more stable and equitable global environment. Multilateral Institutions: Supporting the work of multilateral institutions, such as the United Nations, World Bank, and International Monetary Fund, to address global challenges and promote development. 6  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila MODULE 2: Key Actors in Governance (Part II) MEDIA The term Media, which is the plural of Medium, refers to the communication channels through which we disseminate news, music, movies, education, promotional messages, and other data. It includes physical and online newspapers and magazines, television, radio, billboards, telephone, the Internet, fax, and billboards. Different Types of Media  Print Media  Broadcast Media  The Internet and Digital Media The media is crucial in achieving national development since it distributes information, inspires public participation, and supports government programs in terms of:  Informing and Educating the Public  Facilitating Government Communication  Feedback Mechanism  Promoting Accountability  Encouraging Development Initiatives Social Media (in Government)  Social media encompasses digital platforms that enable content creation and interaction.  Social media’s integration into government began in the early 2000s, with platforms like MySpace and Facebook. Nature Social media in government is interactive and dynamic, allowing for real- time communication and feedback. This facilitates a two-way conversation between governments and citizens. Roles of Social Media  Communication  Engagement 7  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila  Transparency  Service Delivery  Crisis Management Advantages  Real-time Communication  Wide Reach  Cost-Effective  Feedback Mechanism  Transparency Disadvantages  Misinformation  Security Risks  Public Backlash  Resource Intensive  Privacy Concerns Features  Interactivity  Multimedia Content  Analytics  Accessibility  Personalization Effects  Enhanced Engagement  Improved Service Delivery  Greater Transparency  Public Opinion  Crisis Response Role in National Development Social media supports national development by promoting transparency, facilitating public participation, improving service delivery, supporting economic development, managing crises, and conducting educational outreach. ACADEMIA 8  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila Academia is more than just institutions of learning; It’s the heartbeat of society. It’s where the next generation of leaders are shaped, where groundbreaking discoveries are made, and where the cultural fabric of a nation is woven. From the ancient philosophers of Greece up to the modern-day scientist exploring the cosmos, academia has always been at the forefront of human advancement. It’s testament to our enduring desire to understand the world around us and to shape it for the better. The Multifaceted Role of Academia in National Development  Knowledge creation and dissemination: How academia contributes to generating new knowledge and ensuring its effective dissemination.  Human Capital Development: The role of universities in nurturing skilled professionals and future leaders.  Policy formulation and advice: The importance of academic expertise in shaping national policies.  Community engagement and outreach: How academia can contribute t social and economic development at the local level.  Cultural preservation and promotion: The role of academia in safeguarding and promoting a nation’s cultural heritage. From the minds of academics come the breakthroughs that shape our world, the policies that guide our governments, and the cultural richness that defines our identities. Without academia, we would be a society lacking in intellectual curiosity innovation, and the capacity for critical thought. It is, in essence, the essential ingredient that makes a nation great. The Role of Citizens History The Philippines experienced the renewal and broadening of civil society during the 1980s as mass mobilizations helped bring down the Marcos dictatorship. As a product of democratic transition, the 1987 Constitution recognizes the importance of civil society and its participation in governance and development. 9  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila The 1987 Philippine Constitution enshrined citizen participation and accorded protection for the rights of the people and civil society organizations for “effective and reasonable participation at all levels of social, political and economic decision-making. The State shall, by law, facilitate the establishment of adequate consultation mechanisms.” Citizen participation in local governance was also solidified in the 1991 Local Government Code of the Philippines and other legislative documents promoting the rights of the people and people’s organization to participation at all levels of decision- making in any social, political or economic areas. Citizen participation has been known to reap benefits for individuals, communities, organizations and provide better value to governments.. As a product of the democratic transition, the 1987 Constitution recognizes the importance of civil society and its participation in governance and development. The Charter declares that the State shall encourage non- governmental, sector-specific, and community-based organizations that promote the welfare of the nation. It emphasizes that the right of the people and their organizations to effective and reasonable participation at all levels of social, political, and economic decision- making shall not be abridged. To pursue this aim, adequate consultation mechanisms will be set up by the government. Direct Democracy: Institutional and Non-institutional Mechanisms Community-Driven Development (CDD) Approach, as defined by the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD), refers to a community development practice where processes, principles, strategies, and resources are applied to ensure community empowerment by giving the people authority and control over decisions and resources. At the core of the strategy are the principles of participation, transparency and accountability. The approach has gained popularity over the past few decades as a key mechanism of governments in improving the lives of the poor and marginalized, especially through development works funded by various international development institutions. In the Philippines, the Common Driven Development (CDD) approach is implemented on a national scale through the KALAHI-CIDSS by the DSWD. Another participatory governance mechanism was previously implemented through the Bottom-Up Budgeting (BuB) program. 10  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila The Kapit-Bisig Laban sa Kahirapan-Comprehensive and Integrated Delivery of Social Services-National Community-Driven Development (KALAHI- CIDSS-NCDD) Program encouraged marginalized communities to engage with their barangay officials in identifying their needs and accessing resources from other government agencies. The program enabled communities to participate in decision-making, exact accountability from local officials, and foil efforts to divert funds. The Forum is a collaborative activity between the DSWD and the LGU. It aims to elevate people’s understanding of the status of local development, especially in the areas of local governance, poverty reduction, and people empowerment. It provides a platform for face-to- face dialogue between project implementers and beneficiaries. It promotes the use of information by municipal and barangay officials to support better planning, implementation, and reporting. People Council The Philippines developed a decentralized system of government with the passage of the Local Government Code of 1991. Specifically, the Code included the concepts of devolution, funding of local government units, and citizen participation. Local development councils in every province, city, municipality, and barangay determine the use of the local development fund which represents 20 percent of the Internal Revenue Allotment from the national government. Under the law, a quarter of the seats in these councils should be occupied by CSO (Civil Society Society) representatives. Bottom-Up Budgeting Being the constituents of a democratic state, Filipinos have the right to participate in the decision-making processes regarding public affairs and are encouraged to do so. This is to improve accountability and transparency, which are closely associated with good governance (La Salle Institute of Governance, 2012). In fact, the 1987 Constitution states that: “The State shall encourage non- governmental, community-based, or sectoral organizations that promote the welfare of the nation (Art. 2, Sec. 23).” Another important provision in the 1987 Constitution states that: “The right of the people and their organizations to effective and reasonable participation at all levels of social, political, and economic decision-making shall not be abridged. The state shall, by law, facilitate the establishment of adequate consultation mechanisms (Art. 13, Sec. 16).” 11  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila In addition to this, the 1991 Local Government Code set down the structures of local government units (LGUs) as well as their powers and responsibilities. Aside from requiring LGUs to deliver the necessary basic goods and services to their constituents, the Code also promotes the participation of citizens in all aspects of governance. Some participatory mechanisms that serve as an avenue for the people to participate include mandatory consultations and public hearings. Citizen participation in the budget process is necessary for “better decision making, better planning, better budgeting, better expenditure and better accountability.” (Department of Budget and Management, 2016). Benefits and Challenges of Direct Democracy  Open Government and Fiscal Transparency Supply-side governance reforms have led to the institution of open data mechanisms that provide financial and budget information to citizens. The Transparency Seal pushes for the mandatory disclosure of key budgets and major programs and plans on their websites. The Full Disclosure Policy of the DILG has resulted in the mandatory disclosure of key financial documents of local government units including budget, procurement, and special purpose fund reports such as the utilization of the Gender and Development (GAD) Fund, Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA), and Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) Fund.  Public Participation in Budget Policy Over the past five years, various efforts were made to enhance public participation in the budget cycle, from budget formulation to budget oversight. The Budget Partnership Agreement creates a means for CSO engagement with national government agencies in crafting budget proposals. Aside from providing local CSOs with a formal mechanism to engage in national and local budgeting, the Bottom-Up Budgeting Process also sought to make national government more responsive to local needs, as well as to improve the quality of governance and service delivery at the local government level.  Public Participation in Performance Monitoring 12  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila The key performance monitoring system for local government units is the Seal of Good Housekeeping (SGH) which has been succeeded by the Seal of Good Local Governance (SGLG). The implementation of the SGH has enabled citizens to gain better access to information on local government finances and development projects. Through this performance system, local governments started sharing financial documents with the citizens online through the FDP Portal. About 7 of every 10 LGUs have regularly uploaded their financial documents. Due to good financial housekeeping encouraged by the SGH, there is now a decline in the number of local governments obtaining a negative COA Opinion Report. Responsibilities of Citizen  Paying Taxes: Paying taxes is the duty and responsibility of each and every citizen towards his/her nation. This duty of citizens plays a significant role in the development of the nation.  Exercising Vote as a Citizen: It is the duty of every citizen to cast his vote and influence the decisions taken by political heads and bring about changes in the country. At the same time, having a transparent and corruption-free election procedure is a step towards building and developing a nation.  Discouraging Corruption: Corruption is a serious challenge faced by every country. It hinders the nation from growth and development.  Education: Education helps and enables a person to build the right foundation for himself and enables him to make decisions and make choices that will benefit his further life. Today’s children are tomorrow’s citizens is a well-known saying. Therefore knowledge is a weapon that can bring about progress not only to a child’s life but to the entire nation as well. Evidence of Impact of Citizen Engagement Evidence is emerging that citizen engagement improves access, responsiveness, inclusiveness, and accountability in the delivery of public services such as health, water, education, and agriculture. It also improves transparency, accountability, and sustainability in natural resources management. Global movements such as the International Budget Partnership are promoting citizen engagement as a means to make budgets and fiscal policies more transparent, participatory, and pro-poor. 13  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila  Citizens’ participation and monitoring of procurement processes, including contract awards, delivery of goods, and construction, has been found to improve the outcomes  Development programs such as community driven development programs and conditional cash transfer programs empower citizens with decision making of public resources for purposes they determine.  Citizen engagement is being increasingly used to curb corruption in a variety of development programs such as service delivery, public financial management, natural resources management, as well as to hold public officials accountable through programs such as assets and liabilities disclosure and monitoring, citizen report cards, and public interest litigation Six Ways to Engage Citizens and Civil Society in Good Governance Programs There are six emerging ways to engage citizens in design, implementation, and monitoring of development policies and programs. These are: i. Access to information. An informed citizenry is essential for citizen engagement. It is necessary to provide citizens with balanced and objective information to assist them in understanding the problem, alternatives, opportunities, and solutions. ii. Consultations. Increasingly, governments and donors are seeking citizens’ views in the design and implementation of policies and programs. iii. Collaborative decision making. The citizens and/or CSOs (civil society organizations) are invited to be involved in decision making by the government authorities and implementing agencies. The key expected results are more responsive decision making, improve sustainability and legitimacy, and increased access and utilisation of programs. iv. Citizen and beneficiary feedback. This is akin to customer satisfaction surveys used by the private sector in services. Applications in the development field are found in use of citizen report cards, short message service-based citizen feedback collection, community scorecards, focus group discussions, etc. 14  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila v. Citizen-led monitoring. While there is commonality of tools between this form of engagement and the feedback collection, the focus is different. vi. Grievance redress mechanisms. These are becoming more commonplace among development projects driven by the fact that safeguard policies require implementing agencies to have them in place. 15  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila MODULE 3: Theories of Governance and Development Theories of Governance and Development Precolonial Period (Before 1565) Before the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines in 1521, there already existed a system of governance in precolonial Philippines. Our country was an archipelago organized into several independent and self-sufficient political units known as the BARANGAY. This unit is headed by a chief as the DATU. There was also a system of stratification based on class which includes:  Nobility (Maharlika)  Freeman (Timawa)  The Serf (Aliping Namamahay)  The Slaves (Aliping Sagigilid) Spanish Period (1565-1898) Ferdinand Magellan’s arrival in the Philippines in 1521 became the Spanish crown’s basis for the occupation of the archipelago. Thereafter, a number of expeditions were sent to formally colonize the archipelago. It was only during Miguel de Lopez conquest of the islands in 1565 did the formal establishment of a colonial government take place. The precolonial government was characterized by independent barangay, the Spaniards consolidated power under a centralized government which was led by the GOVERNOR-GENERAL. With his authority based in Manila (Intramuros), the governor-general was likewise an all-powerful individual. Recognizing the influence of the Datus for the easier pacification of natives, the Spaniards appointed the chieftains as the Cabeza De Barangay. The unified barangays composed the pueblos or town which were led by the GOBERNADORCILLO (Little Governor). The consolidated towns then form into provinces which could be categorized into two: A. ALCALDÍA – provinces fully headed by ALCALDE MAYOR. B. CORREGIMIENTO – provinces that were not entirely pacified under Spanish authority led by CORREGIDOR. 16  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila C. ROYAL AUDIENCIA – is an independent body created to hear and solve cases, established in Manila, Cebu and Vigan. Revolutionary Period (1868-1898) The PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT, led by key figures such as Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar and Graciano Lopez Jaena advocated reforms such that the same rights and freedoms being enjoyed in Spain would also be granted to Filipinos. Martial Law Era (1972-1981) and The Fourth Republic (1981-1986) In 1965, Ferdiannd Marcos was elected to the presidency and his administration was characterized by an A. Increased Agricultural Productivity B. Massive Infrastructure Development C. Defining Diplomatic Policy Under Marcos Administration, a new constitution was adopted in 1973, the 1973 constitution provided that the Philippines will have a modified parliamentary form of government. During Martial Law, the political rights and civil liberties of the people as well as their human rights were suppressed and violated. Marcos lifted Martial Law by 1981, he continued to exercise dictatorship powers. Calls to end his dictatorial regime brought Filipinos to take to the streets to participate in a popular and nonviolent uprising called the EDSA PEOPLE POWER which ousted Marcos and ended his dictatorial rule. The Fifth Republic or Post-EDSA Period (1986-Present) The period from 1986 onward is the restoration of democracy. The fall of the dictatorship marked the shift toward re-democratization and return to constitutionalism. A revolutionary government was created following Corazon Aquino's ascent to presidency. When the new Philippine Constitution was ratified in 1987, a democratic and republican government was established. The POST-EDSA era also known as the FIFTH REPUBLIC. CORAZON AQUINO served as the first [resident of the fifth republic. Followed by FIDEL RAMOS, JOSEPH ESTRADA after being deposed by the EDSA PEOPLE POWER II. ESTRADA was succeeded by his vice president GLORIA MACAPAGAL ARROYO, followed by BENIGNO AQUINO. Today, the 17  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila Philippines is headed by FERDINAND MARCOS JR., the only son of the former president Ferdinand Marcos. Governance The sound exercise of political, economic, and administrative authority to manage a country’s resources for development. It involves the institutionalization of a system through which citizens, institutions, organizations, and groups in a society articulate their interests, exercise their rights, and mediate their differences in pursuit of the collective good (Country Governance Assessment 2005). Development Development is subject to the control of economic forces that move all human societies along the road to socialism, through the stages of the ancient era, feudal, and capitalism, the stage that is currently occupied by most of mankind. Additionally, the concept of development has considerably changed from the restricted focal point on the economic facet, to include the political and social aspect in which development is not just measured by economic benchmarks, such as GNP and GDP, but by looking into the redistribution of wealth and income, the poverty line, efficiency and effectiveness of government services, and individual well-being. With these aspects, the concept of social development emerged, in which the term “social” referred to non-material or less economic factors that contributed to the overall quality of life that concluded aspect that were more concerned with people rather than with material things. (A. Sen, Nobel Prize 1998). Theories of Governance and Development Political Economy Perspective  Institutional Theory Institutional theory focuses on the roles of social, political and economic systems in which companies operate and gain their legitimacy. Government universally applies policy to all citizens of society and monopolizes the use of force in applying policy. The legislature, executive and judicial branches of govemment are examples of institutions that give policy legitimacy. Considers policy as an institutional output (Institutions refers to government institutions), Government institutions have long been a central focus of political science. 18  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila Traditionally political science is the study of government institutions such as the state, municipalities etc. Public policy is authoritatively determined. implemented and enforced by these institutions.  Marxist Perspective States that society inevitably develops through class struggle from oppression under capitalism to classlessness, is one theoretical giant that dominated global concepts of development. Class is determined by their role in the productive process and by the division of labor, whose true interests are antagonistic to other classes.  Developmental State Theory Developmental state not only refers to the collective economic and human development, but also describes the state’s essential role in harnessing national resources and directing incentives through a distinctive policy-making process.  Public Choice Theory This theory refers to policy as a collective decision making by self interested individuals. Individuals come together in politics for their own mutual benefits and by agreement (Contract) among themselves they can enhance their own well being. Therefore, people pursue their self interest in politics but even with selfish motives they can mutually benefit through collective decision making.  Participatory Governance Advocates for the involvement of citizens in decision making processes. Institutional Approaches  New Institutional Economic is an economic perspective that attempts to extend economics by focusing on the institutions (that is to say the social and legal norms and rules) that underlie economic activity and with analysis beyond earlier institutional economics and neoclassical economics. 19  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila  Historical Institutionalism is a new institutionalist social science approach that emphasizes how timing, sequences and path dependence affect institutions, and shape social, political, economic behavior and change.  Sociological Institutionalism Focuses on how cultural norms and values shape institutional behavior and governance processes. Critical Perspective  Post-Colonial Theory Is a literary theory or critical approach that deals with literature produced in countries that were once, or are now, colonies of other countries. It may also deal with literature written in or by citizens of colonizing countries that takes colonies or their peoples as its subject matter. The theory is based around concepts of otherness and resistance.  Feminist Perspective Feminist theory falls under the umbrella of critical theory, which in general have the purpose of destabilizing systems of power and oppression.  Environmental Justice Is political theory at its best, providing an invaluable review of the contemporary literature, subverting traditional political categories and distinctions, and suggesting new directions for politics and policy.  Social Movements and Resistance As “an organized effort by some portion of the civil population of a country to resist the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability.” 20  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila MODULE 4: Governance and Development in Practice Case Studies in Governance and Development in Africa 1. Rwanda: After the 1994 genocide, Rwanda prioritized rebuilding through reconciliation, decentralization, and economic planning. The government’s Vision 2020 focused on health, education, and technology, transforming Rwanda into a stable and growing economy. This case shows how strong governance can facilitate recovery and long-term development after a crisis. 2. Botswana: Since its independence in 1966, Botswana has been a standout example of good governance in Africa. By managing its diamond wealth wisely and maintaining low levels of corruption, Botswana ensured stable democratic institutions and economic growth. This demonstrates the importance of transparent resource management in achieving sustainable development. 3. Ethiopia: Ethiopia used an agricultural-first strategy, known as ADLI, to drive its economic growth. By improving infrastructure for small farmers, it significantly boosted food security and rural development. Despite Ethiopia’s rapid economic growth, political challenges highlight the complex relationship between development policies and governance structures. 4. South Africa: After apartheid, South Africa worked to decentralize power, creating provincial and local governments aimed at improving services in poor areas. While there have been successes, such as better access to electricity and housing, issues like corruption and inequality have slowed progress. This case emphasizes the difficulties of balancing governance reforms with social justice. 5. Kenya: In 2010, Kenya adopted devolution to give more power and resources to its 47 counties. This aimed to reduce inequality and improve service delivery. While some counties have seen progress, challenges with corruption and effective resource management remain. This highlights both the potential and pitfalls of decentralization as a governance model. These examples show how different African countries are navigating governance challenges and pursuing development, offering valuable lessons on decentralization, resource management, and post-conflict recovery. 21  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila GOVERNANCE AND GROWTH: CASE STUDY OF SELECTED COUNTRIES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA PARTICULARLY THE PHILIPPINES ‘ The Philippines is not a poor country but nevertheless it is a country with a lot of poor people ‘ expresses the current European Union Country Strategy for the Philippines and gives a clear picture of the country’s questionable growth patterns. Once thought of as the next rising star of Asia and rich in natural resources, Philippines have always fallen short of achieving the growth and development that would establish them as a prominent player among the ASEAN countries. In the case of the Philippines, the current policy makers and their international donors, including the European Commission, the United Nations and USAID, agree that the good governance indicators including the lack of political stability and prevalence of corruption etc, present major challenges in achieving the growth potential of the country, in spite of formulating some sound policies. With an average growth rate of 4.65% over the last decade, the Philippines growth rate does surpass the global growth rate of 3.8% for the same period of time, but still falls short of reaching its desired rate of growth given its strong overseas labour force and rich natural resources. The Philippines scores.644 in the Human Development Index, in the medium human development category, and ranks 112 among 187 countries, thus in terms of HDI, Philippines is still within the lower 50%. With an inequality rate of 44%, its Gini index places Philippines behind Malaysia and Thailand. (Journal Online 2011). It is also notable that while growth failed to accelerate, the good governance indicators have largely regressed putting Philippines amongst the bottom half in institutional indicators such as rule of law and regulatory quality. Corruption has been acknowledged as the biggest challenge that the government faces currently and in the case of Philippines, the interconnectedness of the individual indicators play out. 22  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila The strong comeback after 2009 is an indication of the resilience of the Philippine economy, however, the Philippines development plan, along with all other reports on the country, reiterates that good and stable governance is an important pre-condition of inclusive growth and suspects that the economy will fail to progress further without a sustainable and people friendly growth plan, with an environment of political stability and peace. Latin America - varied collection of nations south of the United States make up the Western Hemisphere's Latin America region. It encompasses South America, Central America, and Mexico. With a common historical and cultural legacy originating in the Roman Empire, the phrase "Latin America" refers to nations where people speak Spanish, Portuguese, or French. Argentina: Argentina has a complex political history characterized by periods of democracy and authoritarian rule but in recent decades, Argentina has returned to democratic governance, with regular elections. Current situation: Over the previous few decades, Argentina, a South American nation, has experienced severe economic difficulties, such as hyperinflation, debt crises, and currency devaluation. dynamics underscores the need for comprehensive reform and inclusive policies.Overall, the country is navigating a complex mix of economic, social, and political issues. Argentina's development has been shaped by a blend of economic opportunities, political challenges, and social movements, resulting in a dynamic but often turbulent history. Key Institution and their Roles 1. Executive Branch President: The head of state and government, responsible for enforcing laws, managing the executive branch, and setting national policy. The president also has the power to veto legislation. 2. Legislative Branch National Congress: Bicameral, consisting of: 23  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila Chamber of Deputies: Members serve four-year terms and represent the populace. They initiate and vote on legislation. Senate: Comprises representatives from each province, serving six-year terms. Senators approve or reject legislation passed by the Chamber of Deputies and have specific roles in treaties and appointments. 3. Judicial Branch Supreme Court: The highest court in Argentina, ensuring the constitutionality of laws and resolving disputes. It oversees lower courts and interprets legal issues. Federal and Provincial Courts: Handle cases related to federal and provincial laws. 4. Central Bank (BCRA) Responsible for monetary policy, regulating the banking system, and managing inflation. It plays a critical role in stabilizing the economy and controlling currency issues. 5. Provincial Governments Each province has its own government, constitution, and laws, allowing for regional autonomy. Provincial governors oversee local administrations and budgets. 6. Political Parties Justicialist Party (Peronist): Focuses on social justice and labor rights. Radical Civic Union: Advocates for liberal democracy and social reforms. Other parties also contribute to the political landscape, influencing policy and governance. 7. Constitutional Court Addresses constitutional issues and protects civil rights, ensuring laws comply with the national constitution. 8. Electoral Authority 24  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila Oversees elections, ensuring fairness and transparency in the electoral process. It regulates party financing and electoral campaigns. 9. Human Rights Organizations Various NGOs and government agencies work to protect human rights, particularly in the context of past abuses during the military dictatorship. Governance Structure and Institutions in Africa: Africa, a diverse nation with a complex history, offers a fascinating study of governance structure and institutions. Its unique blend of traditional, colonial, and post-colonial influences has shaped its political landscape and institutional development. Historical Context Africa's history of apartheid, a system of racial segregation, has had a profound impact on its governance structures. The dismantling of apartheid in the early 1990s led to a transition to a democratic government, but the legacy of the past continues to influence the country's political and institutional dynamics. Governance Structure Africa has a parliamentary system of government, where the executive branch is derived from the legislature. The primary institutions are:  Executive Branch: Led by the President, who is also the head of state and government. The President appoints ministers to form the Cabinet, which is responsible for policy formulation and implementation.  Legislative Branch: Consists of the National Assembly and the National Council of Provinces. The National Assembly is the lower house and is directly elected by the people. The National Council of Provinces represents the interests of the nine provinces.  Judicial Branch: The judiciary is independent and is headed by the Constitutional Court. It is responsible for interpreting and enforcing the Constitution. KEY INSTITUTIONS  Constitutional Court: The Constitutional Court plays a crucial role in safeguarding human rights and ensuring that the government adheres to the Constitution. It has the power to declare laws unconstitutional.  Human Rights Commission: This independent body is responsible for promoting and protecting human rights in Africa. It investigates 25  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila complaints of human rights violations and can make recommendations to the government.  Public Protector: The Public Protector is an independent ombudsman who investigates complaints of maladministration and corruption in the public sector. Challenges and Opportunities Despite significant progress since the end of apartheid, Africa faces several challenges in its governance structure and institutions. These include:  Inequality: The legacy of apartheid has resulted in significant economic and social inequality. This inequality can undermine political stability and hinder effective governance.  Corruption: Corruption remains a significant problem in Africa, affecting various sectors of society. Efforts to combat corruption are ongoing.  Traditional Leadership: The role of traditional leaders in governance continues to be a subject of debate. While they can play a positive role in promoting social cohesion, there are also concerns about their potential to undermine democratic principles. Despite these challenges, Africa has made significant strides in building a democratic and inclusive society. Its governance structure and institutions offer valuable lessons for other countries facing similar challenges. ANALYSIS OF GOVERNANCE STRUCTURE IN JAPAN Historical Context and Evolution Japan has seen a transition from a centralized, hierarchical structure to a more complicated and decentralized organization from the feudal era to the modern era.  Feudal Era - During the Edo period (1603-1868), The Tokugawa Shogunate, a centralized government with a rigid social structure, ruled over Japan. While this system placed a strong emphasis on stability and order, it also hindered personal liberties and creativity.  Meiji Restoration (1868) - A period of fast modernization and industrialization was ushered in by the Meiji Restoration. The new administration established a bicameral legislature and a parliamentary 26  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila system, establishing a constitutional monarchy modeled after the Prussian model.  Post-World War II - Japan's post-World War II governance structure saw substantial changes as a result of US influence. A democratic system with a heavy focus on individual rights and freedoms was approved by the new constitution. Key Institutions and their Roles Japan's governance system is characterized by a complex interplay of institutions, each with its own distinct role and influence.  The Emperor - The Emperor is a figurehead who lacks political authority, yet he nevertheless represents continuity and national cohesion.  The Diet - Japan's bicameral legislature, the Diet, is essential to passing laws and managing the executive branch. Majority authority is held by the 465 members of the House of Representatives, who are chosen via a proportional system of representation. A check on the House of Representatives is provided by the 245 members of the House of Councilors, who are chosen using a combination of single-member districts and proportional representation.  The Prime Minister - The Cabinet, which is made up of ministers in charge of different government ministries, is chosen by the Prime Minister, who serves as the head of state. The House of Representatives elects the prime minister, who needs to be a member of that body.  The Judiciary - Japan's legal system is divided into three tiers: The Supreme Court, High Courts, and District Courts. The judiciary is in charge of interpreting and enforcing the law and is separate from the legislative and executive departments. Unique Features of Japanese Governance Japan's governance system exhibits several unique features that distinguish it from other democratic systems.  Bureaucracy - Bureaucrats play a major role in policymaking and implementation, frequently exercising substantial influence over government decisions. Japan is home to a strong and important bureaucracy, sometimes referred to as the "administrative elite."  Consensus-Based Decision-Making - In Japanese governance, reaching an agreement and making concessions to different parties are prioritized. 27  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila This method, called "nemawashi," requires lengthy discussions and deliberations prior to making any significant decisions.  “Amakudari” - Amakudari is the term used to describe the habit of retired bureaucrats taking jobs in government or private enterprises. Challenges and Future Directions Japan's governance system faces several challenges in the 21st century, including:  Declining Birth rate and Aging Population - The aging of Japan's population is posing serious hurdles to both economic growth and the viability of its social security system.  Economic Stagnation - Since the 1990s, Japan has gone through a period of economic stagnation, raising questions about its long-term economic prospects.  Political Polarization - Political polarization in Japan has increased recently, with opposition groups posing a greater threat to the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). Conclusion Japan's distinct history and cultural background have produced the country's complicated and dynamic political system. Even though it has had exceptional economic growth and stability, it nevertheless faces many difficulties in the twenty-first century. The nation's ability to innovate, reach consensus, and practice efficient governance will determine how well it can respond to these difficulties. Governance in Latin America is shaped by its colonial past, centralized presidential systems, and political ideologies ranging from socialism to market oriented policies. Most countries have adopted democratic systems since the 1980s, but the strength of institutions varies widely. Nations like Chile and Uruguay maintain robust democracies, while others like Venezuela and Nicaragua experience democratic erosion and authoritarian tendencies. A key challenge is the region's widespread corruption, which weakens institutions and undermines public trust. High-profile scandals, like Brazil's Lava Jato, have exposed deep-rooted corruption, complicating governance and development efforts. Economic inequality is another persistent issue, with Latin America remaining one of the most unequal regions in the world. This inequality 28  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila fuels social unrest, as seen in recent protests in countries like Chile, Ecuador, and Colombia, where demands for reforms and greater inclusivity have risen. Additionally, crime and security remain pressing concerns, particularly in countries like Mexico and Colombia, where drug cartels and organized crime exert significant influence. Governments struggle to maintain order and protect citizens, often undermining governance structures. Efforts at institutional reform are ongoing, with countries like Colombia and Peru introducing anti-corruption measures, and Chile undergoing constitutional reforms aimed at addressing inequality. Regional institutions like the Organization of American States (OAS) and trade blocs like Mercosur promote cooperation and stability, though political and ideological differences between member nations limit their effectiveness. Latin American governance structures primarily follow presidential systems, where the president is both head of state and government. Most countries have civil law systems, rooted in their colonial Spanish and Portuguese influences, with legal codes governing the judiciary. Countries like Brazil and Argentina have federal systems, sharing power between national and regional governments, while others like Chile and Peru use unitary systems, where power is centralized. Despite democratic frameworks, corruption and political instability remain challenges, as seen in countries like Venezuela and Nicaragua, which exhibit authoritarian trends. Meanwhile, countries like Chile and Uruguay stand out for stronger institutions and transparency. Decentralization efforts have been made to empower local governments, but implementation varies across the region. EXAMINATION OF POLICY-MAKING AND IMPLEMENTATION IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS The process of creating and carrying out policies in various settings or environments Considering Factors; 1. Political Systems 2. Economic Conditions 29  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila 3. Cultural Factors 4. Administrative Capacity 5. Global Context The Key theories include:  Public Choice Theory - It emphasizes self-interest and rational behavior in policy-making.  Institutionalism - It highlighting the importance of rules, norms, and organizations. Political Systems  Democratic System - Public engagement, check and balances, and transparency the important elements of a democratic country. Examples of Democratic Countries are: Norway, New Zealand, Iceland, etc. Authoritarian Systems - it is often centralized and quickly implemented. Examples of Authoritarian Countries are: Afghanistan, Myanmar, North Korea, etc. Hybrid System - A democracy and authoritarian combined systems Examples of Hybrid Systems are: Bangladesh, El Salvador, Macedonia, etc. Economic Condition Developed Countries - better resources and infrastructures. (Examples; USA, Canada, Germany, etc.) Developing Economies - Lacks resources and infrastructure, making policy implementation challenging. (Examples: Brazil, Moldova, Mexico, etc.) Cultural Factors  Individualistic Culture - Prioritize individual rights and liberties in their policies.  Collectivism Culture - Policies may be more concerned with the needs of groups and community. 30  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila Administrative Capacity  Strong Administrative Capacity - Have highly trained and experienced public workers.  Weak Administrative Capacity - Low administrative competence may have insufficient resources, lacks of knowledge, and corruption in their public administration. Global Context Globalization - provides new opportunities and difficulties to policymaking and its operation. International Organizations - have a considerable impact on defining goals and providing technical support for policy implementation. Policy Making Process - crafting policy choices, choosing policies, and enacting the policies. Implementation Challenges - including lack of funding, opposition from interested parties, or inefficient administrative frameworks. Policy Evaluation -this involves gathering information, assessing results, and recommending revisions/adjustments. 31  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila MODULE 5: Institutions and Governance TYPES OF INSTITUTION I. What is the meaning of Institution? Institution refers to the established organisation designed to provide society’s socio-economic and politico-cultural needs such as education, public service, culture or the care of the destitute, poor etc. and other services a government is obliged to deliver as mandated. (Buendia, 2022) II. Political Institutions Political institutions are the organizations in a government that create, enforce, and apply laws. They often mediate conflict, make (governmental) policy on the economy and social systems, and otherwise provide representation for the population. In general, democratic political regimes are divided into two types: presidential (headed by a president) and parliamentary (headed by a parliament). Legislatures built to support the regimes are unicameral (only one house) or bicameral (two houses—for example, a senate and a house of representatives or a house of commons and a house of lords). Party systems can be two-party or multiparty and the parties can be strong or weak depending on their level of internal cohesion. The political institutions are those bodies—parties, legislatures, and heads of state—that make up the whole mechanism of modern governments. Parties, Trade Unions, and Courts In addition, political institutions include political party organizations, trade unions, and the (legal) courts. The term 'political Institutions' may also refer to the 32  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila recognized structure of rules and principles within which the above organizations operate, including such concepts as the right to vote, a responsible government, and accountability. Political Institutions in Brief Political institutions and systems have a direct impact on the business environment and activities of a country. For example, a political system that is straightforward and evolving when it comes to the political participation of the people and laser-focused on the well-being of its citizens contributes to positive economic growth in its region. Every society must have a type of political system so that it may allocate resources and ongoing procedures appropriately. A political institution sets the rules that an orderly society obeys and ultimately decides and administers the laws for those who do not obey. Types of Political Systems The political system consists of both politics and government and involves the law, economy, culture, and other social concepts. The most popular political systems that we know of around the world can be reduced to a few simple core concepts. Many additional types of political systems are similar in idea or root, but most tend to surround concepts of:  Democracy: A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives.  Republic: A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives and that has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch.  Monarchy: A form of government in which one person reigns, typically a king or a queen. The authority, also known as a crown, is typically inherited.  Communism: A system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy. Often, an authoritarian party holds power and state controls are imposed.  Dictatorship: A form of government where one person makes the main rules and decisions with absolute power, disregarding input from others. In 1960, Gabriel Abraham Almond and James Smoot Coleman gathered three core functions of a political system, which include: 33  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila 1. To maintain the integration of society by determining norms. 2. To adapt and change elements of social, economic, and religious systems necessary for achieving collective (political) goals. 3. To protect the integrity of the political system from outside threats. III. Economic Institutions Economics is a social science that focuses on the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The study of economics is primarily concerned with analyzing the choices that individuals, businesses, governments, and nations make to allocate limited resources. Economic institutions Well-established arrangements and structures that are part of the culture or society, e.g., competitive markets, the banking system, kids’ allowances, customary tipping, and a system of property rights are examples of economic institutions. A company or an organization that deals with money or with managing the distribution of money, goods, and services. The Objectives of the Economic Institutions All economic institutions are interested in achieving objectives that correspond to the nature of their activity, and the following is a set of the most important of these objectives:  Economic objectives: the pursuit of profit, and response to the wishes of customers, and attention to rationalizing production.  Social objectives: To ensure the achievement of an acceptable level of salaries and wages, and to contribute to improving the living standards of employees and workers, and to ensure the cohesion and organization of employees, and provide appropriate insurance for them.  Cultural objectives: To provide all cultural and recreational means for employees, and to provide training for beginners.  Technological objectives: the interest in development and research, the use of the media to reduce costs and gain time, and access to reliable and accurate information. Types of Economic Institutions: 34  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila Based on the nature of their ownership: It’s divided into the following types:  Private enterprises: They belong to a person or group of individuals.  Mixed institutions: They are privately owned and public owned.  Public institutions: They are owned by the state, and managers are not entitled to act according to their personal opinions, nor may they sell them until they have obtained state approval. According to the economic activity, It’s divided into four types:  Agricultural institutions: are keen to increase the production of land or contribute to the reclamation,  Businesses institutions: that are interested in private business activities.  Financial institutions: are institutions that contribute to the implementation of activities related to money.  Service institutions: Institutions that provide specific services, such as university institutions and transport institutions. Based on the number of workers, It’s divided into the following types:  Small enterprises: enterprises with fewer than 50 employees.  Large enterprises: enterprises with more than 500 employees  Giant enterprises: enterprises with more than 10,000 employees. VI. Social Institutions The already existing patterns of connections, attitudes, and ideas that structure social life are known as social institutions. Social institutions provide structure, direction, and order, among other important necessities for society. Social institutions include things like the family, the government, the economy, education, and religion. Racial and gender norms and values are greatly influenced by social institutions. For example, the family is a social institution that is essential to a child's socialization. Children pick up social conventions, attitudes, and expectations regarding gender and race from their families. However, social structures have an impact on our views of others and ourselves, and they have the power to uphold or undermine inequality. To promote acceptance and social justice, it becomes essential to comprehend how social institutions develop these norms and ideals. Educational Institutions 35  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila Education is a social institution that has a major effect on how people form their values and views at an early age. The exchange of knowledge and skills, including academic knowledge and social and cultural standards between generations is one of education’s main functions. Family Institutions The family is a social institution that offers its members both practical and emotional support. As the primary setting for socializing, the family offers a foundation for children. Religious Institutions Religious institutions strengthen values such as compassion, forgiveness and charity. However, religions also promote specific beliefs and practices related to gender and race, which can challenge or reinforce societal norms. Some religious establishments welcome gender and racial equality, while many others uphold traditional gender roles and racial hierarchies. Government Institutions Government institutions are responsible for forming and enforcing laws and ordinances that govern society. The government’s primary role is to maintain order and provide public services. Governments reinforce values such as justice, equality and democracy. They also shape norms related to gender and race through policies and legislation. Laws banning discrimination based on gender and race promote equality, while policies that perpetuate imbalances strengthen societal norms. Economic Institutions Economic institutions are fundamental social structures that encompass the intricate systems and processes governing the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Its impact on individuals and communities is immense, shaping their access to resources, opportunities and overall well-being. Social institutions often reinforce societal norms and values related to gender and race, which perpetuate inequalities. Families that reinforce traditional gender roles contribute to limiting women’s access to education and employment opportunities. Similarly, religious institutions may reinforce racial hierarchies by promoting beliefs and practices that privilege certain racial or ethnic groups over others. 36  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS I. Democratic Framework A democratic institutional framework refers to the set of laws, structures, and mechanisms that organize and support a democratic system of governance. It ensures that power is distributed and exercised according to democratic principles such as rule of law, transparency, accountability, and the protection of individual rights. Key elements of this framework include: 1. Constitution – The supreme law that defines the structure of government, the separation of powers, and the rights of citizens. 2. Legislative Branch – A body (often a parliament or congress) elected by the people to make laws and represent citizens' interests. 3. Executive Branch – The government, including the president, prime minister, or cabinet, which enforces laws and implements policies. 4. Judiciary – Independent courts that interpret the law and ensure justice is administered fairly, protecting rights and checking other branches' powers. 5. Electoral System – Processes for holding free, fair, and regular elections to ensure public participation in selecting representatives and leaders. 6. Political Parties – Organized groups that represent different interests and ideologies, providing citizens with options for governance. 7. Civil Society – Non-governmental organizations, interest groups, and the media that hold the government accountable, advocate for citizens, and promote transparency. 37  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila 8. Checks and Balances – Mechanisms like separation of powers and oversight bodies (e.g., ombudsman or anti-corruption agencies) that prevent abuses of power and maintain democratic integrity. This framework is essential to sustaining a functioning democracy where the government is by the people and for the people. As is frequently the case elsewhere, the Philippines presidential elections since 1949 have been held in a single nation-wide ballot. Each elector casts a single direct vote and the winner is determined by whoever obtains a simple plurality. Before the Marcos interlude, the presidential term was four years and incumbents were eligible for a second term. No person could serve as president more than eight consecutive years. In the 1987 Constitution, the presidential term was extended to six years, but an incumbent was limited to only one term. Additionally, mid-term replacements who served for four years or more also were ineligible to run for a second term. The effective number of candidates in the pre-authoritarian presidential elections with two-term limitation was much smaller than the corresponding figure in the post-authoritarian contests that use the same plurality-based electoral system but have a single-term limitation. In this section, I demonstrate the difference through a comparison of congressional and senatorial elections with presidential elections, focusing on term limits. With respect to congressional elections, the data show that there has not been any significant change in the effective number of candidates at the district level since the end of the authoritarian era. I argue that is due to the fact that a three-term limit has been adopted for those offices, unlike the single term limit placed on the presidency. II. Authoritarian Framework Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated and centralized power maintained by political repression and the exclusion of potential challengers. It uses political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime. A prominent justification for authoritarianism is the view that unquestioning obedience to authority is somehow crucial to maintaining social order and preventing chaos and great harm. Political scientists have created many typologies describing variations of authoritarian forms of government. Authoritarian regimes may be either autocratic or oligarchic and may be based upon the rule of a party, a leader or the military. 38  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila Authoritarianism emphasizes arbitrary law rather than the rule of law, including election rigging and political decisions being made by a select group of officials behind closed doors. Authoritarianism is marked by the "indefinite political tenure" of an autocratic state or a ruling-party state. An autocracy is a system of government in which supreme political power is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control. By contrast, a single-party state is a type of party system government in which a single political party forms the government and no other parties are permitted to run candidates for election. Typically, single- party states hold the suppression of political factions, except as transitory issue-oriented currents within the single party or permanent coalition as a self- evident good. The Communist Party of China's single-party rule of the People's Republic of China is a prominent contemporary example. Authoritarian defined Juan Linz (1964) “Political systems with limited, not responsible, political pluralism, without elaborate and guiding ideology, but with distinctive mentalities, without extensive nor intensive political mobilization, except at some points in their development, and in which a leader or occasionally a small group exercises power within formally ill-defined limits but actually quite predictable ones.” Adam Przeworski has theorized that ‘authoritarian equilibrium rests mainly on lies, fear, and economic prosperity’. Authoritarianism also tends to embrace the informal and unregulated exercise of political power, a leadership that is ‘self-appointed and even if elected cannot be displaced by citizens’ free choice among competitors, the arbitrary deprivation of civil liberties, and little tolerance for meaningful opposition. A range of social controls also attempts to stifle civil society, while political stability is maintained by control over and support of the armed forces, a bureaucracy staffed by the regime and the creation of allegiance through various means of socialization and indoctrination. Przeworski and Jennifer Gandhi, authoritarian rulers may need cooperation and may fear a threat from various segments of society. Cooperation can be induced, and the threat can be reduced by sharing spoils or by making 39  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila policy compromises, they wrote and argued that “Nondemocratic leaders who need more cooperation and who face greater threats to their rule must make more extensive concessions in terms of spoils and policies. Although the former can be distributed directly by the ruler, policy compromises entail an institutional setting, typically legislatures. The degree to which assemblies are organized along partisan lines in turn influences the extent to which authoritarian rulers must make compromises. If rulers counter the threat with an adequate degree of institutionalization, they survive in power.” Shawn Hattingh states “Like maggots crawling out of a decaying carcass, authoritarian populist parties and politicians have emerged in many parts of the world over the last few years. All of these parties and politicians practice a vile form of politics based on hatred, crass stereotypes, blatant lying, spectacle, bigotry, anti-democracy, misogyny, racism, and militarism.” Characteristics of Authoritarian Institutional Framework  Centralized Power  Lack of Free and Fair Elections  Suppression of Dissent  Control Over Media  Subservient Judiciary  Manipulation of Civil Society  Limited Civil Liberties III. Hybrid Regimes Framework What are the Concepts of Hybrid Regimes? Hybrid regimes refer to political systems that exhibit both democratic and authoritarian characteristics. They typically combine elements such as competitive elections, some degree of political pluralism, and civil liberties with significant state control, limited political freedoms, and the manipulation of electoral processes. Key features of hybrid regimes include:  Elections with Constraints: While elections may occur, they are often not free or fair, with ruling parties leveraging state resources to maintain power. 40  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila  Limited Political Pluralism: Multiple political parties may exist, but opposition groups face significant barriers, including repression and media control.  Civil Liberties: There may be some civil rights, but they are often curtailed by the government, leading to selective enforcement.  Institutional Manipulation: Hybrid regimes often use legal and institutional frameworks to legitimize their control while undermining genuine democratic processes.  Public Discontent: Citizens may express dissatisfaction with the regime, leading to protests or calls for reform, although such movements may be met with repression. Characteristics of Hybrid Regimes Hybrid regimes have distinct characteristics that set them apart from fully democratic or fully authoritarian systems. Here are the key features:  Elections: Regular elections are held, but they are often manipulated or controlled, lacking true competitiveness.  Limited Political Freedom: While multiple political parties may exist, opposition groups face significant restrictions, including harassment and censorship.  Media Control: State influence over media is prevalent, leading to biased coverage that favors the ruling party and limits independent journalism.  Civil Liberties: Some civil rights and freedoms are present, but they are frequently undermined by government actions, such as surveillance and repression of dissent.  Institutional Weakness: Legal and political institutions may be weak or subject to manipulation, preventing genuine checks and balances.  Public Discontent: Citizens may express frustration with the government, leading to protests; however, these movements can be met with crackdowns.  Clientelism and Patronage: Ruling parties often rely on networks of patronage and clientelism to maintain support, offering resources or benefits in exchange for loyalty.  Authoritarian Resilience: Despite the appearance of democracy, hybrid regimes often display strong authoritarian tendencies, resisting significant reform. 41  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila INSTITUTIONAL PERFORMANCE I. Effectiveness of the Philippine Government Institutional Performance: Effectiveness Institutional Performance, often referred as “governmental performance” or “quality of government”, is a concept focused on the performances of various types of formal organizations that formulate, implement, or regulate public- sector activities and private provision of goods for the public. There are interesting indicators of institutional performance;  Public confidence in institutions —that is to citizens’ beliefs that the institution’s agents are fair, are competent, and bring about desirable outcomes.  Surveys and conventional statistical measures to create objective indicators of performance. 1. Health and social services Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth) - PhilHealth is a tax- exempt Government Corporation attached to the Department of Health for policy coordination and guidance. As a corporation, PhilHealth has expanded its membership, providing coverage to millions of people, and relocating resources from higher to lower income populations. In a study conducted by Philippine Institute for Development Studies, found out that, PhilHealth premium contributions and benefits payment, across the lifecycle by socio- economic class, by contribution and utilization are both pro-poor. However, on the result of the study conducted by Novo Trends PH, Inc., 3, 000 individual Filipinos who availed various services of PhilHealth expressed high satisfaction with a net satisfaction of 93.75 (2022), higher by more than three percent from 2021 and 2019 data. 2. Peace and development Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) - DILG is an agency that promotes peace and order, ensures public safety, and strengthens local government capability to effectively deliver basic services to the citizenry. Citizen Satisfaction Index System (CSIS) has data tools designed to collect and generate relevant citizen’s feedback on local governments’ service delivery performance and on the citizen’s general satisfaction. This would easily track and monitor the performance of DILG when it comes to the effectiveness of their service, ensuring peace and development. 42  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila 3. Education Commission on Higher Education (CHED) - As a government agency mandated to ensure that the delivery of quality education is observed by schools of higher learning to ultimately attain the national development goal and improve the economic condition of the Philippines, CHED was given enough authorities to perform its bi-focal roles of being regulatory or developmental. CHED’s mandate serves as the government’s significant partner in attaining not only its higher education related aspirations, but the development of students who are hoped to ultimately take part in the improvement of the country’s economy as well. The quality of education produced by CHED can produce graduates who are globally competitive and will become the learned labor force of this country. 4. Economic Services Philippine Statistic Authority is an agency committed to deliver relevant and reliable statistics, efficient civil registration services and an inclusive identification system. It is primarily responsible for all national censuses and surveys, sectoral statistics, community-based statistics, consolidation of selected administrative recording systems, and compilation of national accounts. Since its establishment, PSA has achieved a number of successes stemming from the improved coordination of agencies across government, including more centralized decision-making. With this, a number of List of Establishments (2022) total of 1,109, 684 business enterprises operating in the country has been recorded. Collectively, it produced the biggest share in the country's total employment. 5. Infrastructure supports Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) - DPWH Commits to provide quality, safe, and environment-friendly public infrastructure facilities that will improve the life of every Filipino. As the primary engineering and construction arm of the government, the DPWH is responsible for the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of national highways, major flood control systems, and other public works.International Journal of Science and Research found out in the communication satisfaction and organizational commitment of DPWH, implies that communication satisfaction affects the employees’ commitment to the organization. Therefore, it will affect the organization to retain its strong workforce. 43  Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology Nagtahan St, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008 Metro Manila 6. Environmental management Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) - DENR is responsible for the conservation, management, and development of the country's environment and natural resources. Philippine Institute of Development Studies assesses the efficiency and effectiveness of the Reforestation Program of the DENR. It states that, at the national level, the reforestation program of the DENR has only partially attained its replanting targets. It also appears to have become relatively inefficient in the conduct of replanting activities over the years. Likewise, the individual site level, it may have been effective to some degree in increasing incomes and livelihood opportunities, improving the natural resource and environmental situation, and achieving the other objectives of reforestation in many areas. Based on this, improvements particularly related to the implementation of the NGP are highly likely recommended. 7. Local administration and governance Local Government Unit (LGU) - LGU is a political subdivision of the Republic of the Philippines at the provincial, city, municipal or Barangay level. It is the smallest administration within a country that delivers public services to citizens and implements. The effectiveness of LGUs in each place varies on the administration and workforce in that specific LGU. LGU offers essential services, such as health, education, infrastructure, and sanitation that reflects their effectiveness in meeting the community needs. A study said that a nation fails in achieving its millennium development goals because of its poor governance. That is why, LGU are expected to be effective in delivering and administering essential services to their citizens and must create effective tools in pointing out their weak performances. II. Efficiency of the Philippine Government The efficiency of the Philippine government varies significantly across its institutions, influenced by factors such as governance quality, resource allocation, political influence, and corruption. Some institutions stand out for their efficiency and impact, while others are hindered by systemic inefficiencies. The overall efficiency of the Philippine government is often shaped by its ability when it comes to implementing policies, delivering services, and maintaining transparency and accountability. So the institutions that have adopted reforms, embraced digital transformation, or operate under strong leadership tend to perform better.