First Language Acquisition Theories PDF

First Language Acquisition Theories and Transition to SLA L1 acquisition theories lead to interlanguage theories which lead to second language acquisition (SLA) research studies. It shows that there have been at least three theories that have offered new ideas on L1 acquisition. BEHAVIOURIST THEORY...

First Language Acquisition Theories and Transition to SLA L1 acquisition theories lead to interlanguage theories which lead to second language acquisition (SLA) research studies. It shows that there have been at least three theories that have offered new ideas on L1 acquisition. BEHAVIOURIST THEORY: (1920-1950) This theory holds that children learn language by limiting and practicing what they hear, and that teachers can influence this process by providing appropriate reinforcements. Positive reinforcement, such as praise or rewards, increase the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated, while negative reinforcements, such as a criticism or punishment, decrease that likelihood. The behaviourist theory, attributed to psychologists J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner suggests that language learning is based on habit formation. Learning is a behaviour change as a result of external stimuli and reinforcement. Watson: habits are formed by associating a specific response with a particular stimulus. In other words, when a stimulus elicits a response repeatedly, that response becomes a habit. Skinner: language learning occurs through operant conditioning, where behaviours are strengthened or weakened based on the consequences that follow those behaviours. MENTALIST THEORY: (1950-1960) This theory posits that children are born with a biological predisposition to language learning and that this capacity is present from birth. Chomsky challenged behaviorists by pointing out that their approach overlooked the creative capacity of child language use and proposed a completely different view on how language is acquired. He introduced the concept of Language Acquisition Device (LAD), it is a biological ability which, according to him, contains universal grammatical principles. According to Chomsky, children develop grammar through a process of hypothesis testing, where they try to apply general grammatical rules to specific situations. For example, when a child forms the past tense of a verb by adding "-ed" (as in "goed"), this is considered overgeneralization. This idea has been translated into the realm of second language learning and is known as the Universal Hypothesis, which suggests the existence of core and language-specific grammatical rules in all languages. Eric Lenneberg emphasised the biological prerequisites of language learning by arguing that only humans have the capacity to acquire language. Both Lenneberg and Chomsky suggest that humans possess an innate capacity for language learning, supporting the Mentalist or Innatist Theory of language acquisition. SOCIAL INTERACTIONIST THEORY: (1970) Highlights the significance of social interaction and linguistic environment in language development, integrating key aspects of behaviourist and innatist theories. It focuses on the crucial role of social environment and interactions in the process of linguistic learning. Instead of solely emphasising grammar, this approach prioritises the pragmatics of language, that is, how language is used in real communication situations. It underscores the importance of interactions between novice and experienced speakers in a constant negotiation setting, where feedback is essential for learning. According to this theory, language learning results from the combination of the learner's mental abilities and linguistic input provided by the environment. Bruner (1978) suggests that turn-taking in conversations between caregivers and infants are crucial for language development. Snow (1976) emphasises the active role of adults in infant language acquisition through protoconversations. INTERLANGUAGE THEORIES: (1970) Selinker explains that this theory refers to the transitional linguistic stage that second language learners undergo during their acquisition of the target language. It serves as an intermediate language between the learner's first language and the target language. He identified five principal processes within interlanguage:  Language transfer: from the learner’s L1. Overgeneralization: specific rules and features of the target language. Transfer of training: specific elements taught in L2. Strategies of L2 learning: learners reduce the target language to a simpler system (Selinker). Strategies of L2 communication: used by learners in their attempt to communicate with native speakers of the target language. Adjemian (1976) proposed that interlanguages are natural languages with permeable grammars, where learners employ learning strategies distinct from the linguistic rules governing the language system. Zobl (1980) investigated the influence of the first language on second language acquisition, highlighting the role of formal features in L2 transfer. Tarone described interlanguage as a continuum of speech styles, ranging from superordinate to vernacular styles, based on learners' attention to language form. Ellis's (1985) functional approach, explains how learners organise form-function relationships in a second language. Interlanguage systems are characterised by their permeability, dynamism, and systematicity, as they evolve continuously until the acquisition of the target language system is complete. These approaches view interlanguage as an interim grammar progressing towards the target language grammar. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES BEHAVIOURIST THEORY: (1900-1950) Learning is a behaviour change as a result of external stimuli and reinforcement. Focuses on observable behaviours and the responses to stimuli. Learner: passive receiver of external stimuli and reinforcement. They learn language by imitating (repetition) and practising what they hear. Teacher: controller of stimuli and reinforcements (drills) to shape desired behaviours. Critics: - Ignorance of internal states: they emphasise only on what can be observed (rigid). - Mechanistic view: it treats behaviour as predictable and controllable through stimulus-response relationships, such as how machines operate. - Limited predictive power: overlooks internal cognitive processes, social interactions and emotions that can influence behaviour. Limited focus on meaning and communication. - Interference: learner will transfer the realisation device from his L1 to L2. The differences between both languages make it sometimes difficult. COGNITIVE THEORY: (1950-1970) Language acquisition is an innate human ability. Focuses on how individuals process and assimilate linguistic information. Grammar acquisition is central. Language learning is both conscious and unconscious. Emphasises on comprehension, memory, and problem-solving. LAD (Language Acquisition Device): Children are born with the innate ability to learn a language. Learner: active processor of information, using cognitive resources to learn and retain language. Teacher: Designer of instructional materials and activities that engage cognitive processes. Critics: - Focuses too heavily on internal mental processes: insufficient Real-world application. - Neglect of Social, Cultural, and Emotional Factors. KRASHEN´S MONITOR MODEL: (1970-1980) Learning is a conscious process, with formal instructions, grammar & error correction. It occurs through comprehensible input. Learner: passive recipient of comprehensible input. Teacher: Provider of comprehensible input. Five Central Hypothesis: 1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis suggests that language is acquired subconsciously through exposure and communication, while learning involves explicit instruction. 2. The Monitor Hypothesis proposes that learned language acts as a monitor for editing and correcting speech produced through acquired language. 3. The Natural Order Hypothesis posits that learners acquire grammatical structures in a predictable sequence. 4. The Input Hypothesis argues that learners improve language skills by understanding input slightly beyond their current level of proficiency. 5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis proposes that emotional factors such as anxiety and motivation influence language acquisition success by either facilitating or hindering the intake of input. Critics: - Limited role of conscious learning - Restrictive conditions - Generalisation of language acquisition - Difficulty on application CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY: (1980-2000) Learning is constructed through meaningful real-world experiences. It is scaffolded, building on prior knowledge. Meaningful learning and active engagement. Learning mechanisms: problem-solving, discovery learning and social interaction. Learner: is an active participant who constructs knowledge through interaction and experience. Teacher: facilitator and guide. How do these theories relate? Complementarity: Each theory offers a unique perspective on how a language is learned, and together they provide a more complete view. Behaviorism focuses on practice and repetition, constructivism on meaningful interaction, Krashen on comprehensible input and affective factors, and cognitive theory on mental processes. Interaction and Practice: Behaviorism and constructivism agree on the importance of practice and interaction, though from different approaches. Internal and External Processes: Cognitive theory and Krashen's model highlight internal mental processes and the importance of appropriate input, complementing the perspectives of behaviourism and constructivism on practice and interaction. Affective Aspects: Constructivism and Krashen recognize the crucial role of emotional and social factors in learning, which are not directly addressed by behaviourism and cognitive theory. LEVELS The CEFR levels: Proposes a six-level frame of reference to describe what students at different levels are able to do. TEACHING YOUNG LEARNERS CHILD DEVELOPMENT: Cognitive Development: when they speak or solve a problem. Social - Emotional Development: with gestures, eye contact.  Speech and Language Development: The way they speak. Fine Motor Skills: Related with motricity (writing). Gross Motor Skills: The way they walk, run (related with big muscles). HOW CHILDREN LEARN: Piaget explains that children learn actively by interacting with their physical environment in developmental stages. They learn through their own individual actions and exploration. Vygotsky suggests that children construct knowledge through social interaction, especially with adults in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which means the difference between the child's capacity to solve problems on his own and his capacity to solve them with assistance. Bruner highlights the importance of scaffolding, where adults provide structured and specific support to facilitate the child's learning. This includes for example creating interesting tasks, controlling the child's frustration, keeping the child “on task” remembering the purpose of the activity. LANGUAGE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: Although children may use similar processes for acquiring L1 and L2, the environment for L1 and L2 acquisition can be quite different (Brewster, Ellis & Girard, 2004). L1 Environment L2 Environment HELPFUL IDEAS FOR TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG LEARNERS: 1. Supplement activities with visuals, realia, and movement. 2. Involve students in making visuals and realia. 3. Move from activity to activity. 4. Teach in themes. 5. Use stories and contexts familiar to students. 6. Establish classroom routines in English. 7. Use L1 as a resource when necessary. 8. Bring in helpers from the community 9. Collaborate with other teachers in your school. 10. Communicate with other TEYL professionals. Being Learner THE AGE FACTOR: The age of the students in front of us will be a major deciding factor in how we teach them and what we ask them to do. People of different ages have different needs. It is certainly true that children who learn a new language early have a facility with the pronunciation which is sometimes denied by older students. Critical Period Hypothesis: there is a critical period for language learning, which ends sometime around puberty (Penfield & Roberts, 1959).  Young learners Children are keen (want to learn new things) and enthusiastic. Children are noisy (chatterboxes) Children like to experiment (curious) Children want to have fun Children love attention Children have short attention span Children can be hard to calm down Children don’t respond very well to explicit input and work on language systems (grammar) Use everything in the physical world (senses) for learning and understanding things Like to do well and enjoy being praised They are self-centred and like playing by themselves They are comfortable with the idea that there are rules and routines for things Teachers of young learners need to spend time understanding how their students think and operate. They need to be able to pick up on their students’ current interests so that they can use these to motivate the children. The classroom should be attractive and colourful. A good primary classroom mixes play and learning in an atmosphere of cheerful and supportive harmony. Teenagers (12 and above): They can tell the difference between fact and fiction The learners are discovering a range of new possibilities for themselves They are often unsure about themselves and how they feel about things Teenagers have changing interests. They get bored easily. Activities might be rejected or done without personal investment because learners feel silly or embarrassed when doing them. Motivation may appear to be low Teenagers can come across as outspoken. Discipline can seem to be a problem: they seem particularly averse to things that they see as imposed on them. Teenagers need a sense of security amid the bewildering world they are meeting. “Synaptic pruning”: readjusting functions of the rational and decision-making in the brain, where emotions and “gut reactions” occur. They ask a lot of questions. They have views about what they like and don’t like They ask a lot of questions They are able to work solely with the spoken word, without always needing the physical word. They can make decisions about their own learning. They can understand abstract concepts. They experience intense emotion. They have a huge reserve of energy: they have passionate attachments to interests such as music and sport. As teachers, we should teach what is relevant to their lives (active engagement). Self Access Language Learning. Adults: They usually feel embarrassed Adults are likely to be more critical and demanding, and ready to complain to the teacher if they feel the teaching is unsatisfactory They can engage with abstract thought They have expectations about the learning process  Adults tend to be more disciplined They come into classroom with a range of experiences which allows teachers to use a wide range of activities with them They often have a clear understanding of why they are learning and what they want to get out of it They may have experienced failure or criticism at school, which makes them anxious and under-confident about learning a language They may still experience significant difficulty mastering pronunciation and oral fluency. Classes should be spontaneous and natural (Ross 2009). Cognitive and Learning Styles COGNITIVE STYLES: Have been defined as characteristic cognitive and physiological behaviours that “serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to that learning environment” (Keefe 1979). It can hence be thought of as predispositions to particular ways of approaching learning and are related to personality types. Depending how people respond to learning situation reflect their cognitive styles: CONCRETE LEARNING STYLE: - Use active and direct means of taking in and processing information. - Are interested in information that has immediate value. - Are curious, spontaneous, and willing to take risks. - Dislike routine learning and written work. - Like to learn by games, in class by pictures, films, videos, and learn English by working in pairs. ANALYTICAL LEARNING STYLE: - Are independent, like to solve problems, and enjoy tracking down ideas and developing principles on their own. - Prefer logical, systematic presentation of new learning material. - Are serious, push themselves hard, and vulnerable to failure. - Like to study grammar, but at home by studying English books, and they like the teacher to let them find their mistakes. COMMUNICATIVE LEARNING STYLE: - Prefer social approach to learning. - Need personal feedback and interaction, and learn well from discussion and group activities. - Like to learn by watching, listening, by talking to friends in English, and at home, by watching tv in English AUTHORITY - ORIENTED LEARNING STYLE: - Are responsible and dependable. - Need structure and sequential progression. - Prefer the teacher as an authority figure. - Like to have clear instructions and to know what they are doing. LEARNING STRATEGIES: They are the specific procedures learners use with individual learning tasks. The learner can choose several different ways of completing the task. Each of these choices or strategies offer particular advantages or disadvantages, and the use of an appropriate learning strategy can enhance success with the learning task. Into identifying learning strategies that are effective for different purposes (Vann and Abraham, 1990), Oxford (1990) identifies six general types of learning strategies: MEMORY STRATEGIES: Which help students to store and retrieve information. For example: Creating mental linkages (placing new words into a context), applying images and sounds (representing sound in memory) employing actions (using physical response or sensation). COGNITIVE STRATEGIES: Which enable learners to understand and produce new language. For example: Practising (using formulas and patterns), receiving and sending messages (focusing on the main idea of a message), creating structure for input and output (taking notes) COMPENSATION STRATEGIES: Which allow learners to communicate despite deficiencies in their language knowledge. For example: Guessing intelligently (using nonlinguistic clues to guess meaning), overcoming limitations in speaking and writing (using a circumlocution or synonym). METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES: Which allow learners to control their own learning through organising, planning and evaluating. For example: Centering your learning (linking new information with already known material) arranging and planning your learning (setting goals and objectives), evaluation your learning (self- monitoring) AFFECTIVE STRATEGIES: Which help learners gain control over their emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values. For example: Lowering your anxiety (using music or laughter), encouraging yourself, taking your emotional temperature (discussion your feelings with someone else) SOCIAL STRATEGIES: Which help learners interact with other people. For example: Asking questions (for clarification or verification), cooperating with others, empathising with others. LEARNER STYLE: encompass various strategies employed by students for language learning, including metacognitive, social, and affective approaches. These strategies, combined with individual feelings, motivation, and perceptual preferences, contribute to the formation of learner styles, as proposed by James Purpura. However, scepticism surrounds the practical utility of categorising learners based on these styles for instructional decision-making. Different variables have been suggested to describe learner preferences: Perceptual preferences, that refers to how each person reacts to sensory input, such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, and gustatory stimuli. Personality factors, which suggests that individuals may be more extroverted or introverted, which can influence their willingness to engage in group activities and collaborate with other students. Multiple intelligences (Howard Gardner's theory) explain that people do not possess a single intelligence but rather a variety of "intelligences": 1. Linguistic: The capacity to use words effectively, whether orally (as a storyteller, orator, or politician) or in writing (as a poet, playwright, editor, or journalist), includes the ability to manipulate the syntax or structure of language, the phonology or sounds of language, the semantics or meanings of language, and the pragmatic dimensions or practical uses of language. 2. Logical-mathematical: the capacity to use numbers effectively (as a mathematician, tax accountant, or statistician) and to reason well (as a scientist, computer programmer, or logician). This intelligence includes sensitivity to logical patterns and relationships, statements and propositions (if-then, cause-effect), functions, and other related abstractions. The processes used in logical-mathematical intelligence involve categorization,classification, inference, generalization, calculation, and hypothesis testing. 3. Spatial: the ability to accurately perceive the visual-spatial world (e.g., as a hunter, scout, or guide) and to transform those perceptions (e.g., as an interior decorator, architect, artist, or inventor). This intelligence includes sensitivity to colour, line, shape, form, space, and their relationships. It encompasses the capacity to visualize, graphically represent visual or spatial ideas, and appropriately orient oneself in a spatial matrix. 4. Bodily-kinesthetic: Expertise in using one’s whole body to express ideas and feelings (e.g., as an actor, mime, athlete, or dancer) and skill in using one’s hands to create or transform things (e.g., as a craftsperson, sculptor, mechanic, or surgeon). This intelligence involves physical skills such as coordination, balance, dexterity, strength, flexibility, and speed, as well as proprioceptive, tactile, and haptic capacities. 5. Musical: The capacity to perceive (e.g., as a music aficionado), discriminate (e.g., as a music critic), transform (e.g., as a composer), and express (e.g., as a performer) musical forms. This intelligence includes sensitivity to rhythm, pitch or melody, and timbre or tone color. 6. Interpersonal: The ability to perceive and distinguish the moods, intentions, motivations, and feelings of others. This includes sensitivity to facial expressions, voice, and gestures; the capacity to discriminate among various interpersonal cues; and the ability to respond effectively to those cues, such as influencing a group to follow a certain course of action. 7. Intrapersonal: Self-knowledge and the ability to act adaptively based on that knowledge. This intelligence includes having an accurate picture of oneself (strengths and limitations); awareness of inner moods, intentions, motivations, temperaments, and desires; and the capacity for self-discipline, self-understanding, and self-esteem. 8. Naturalist: Expertise in recognizing and classifying various species of flora and fauna in one's environment. This also includes sensitivity to natural phenomena (e.g., cloud formations, mountains) and, for those in urban settings, the ability to discriminate among inanimate objects like cars, sneakers, and CD covers. Each person has a unique combination of these intelligences, which may affect their learning preferences and abilities. Information processing, such as "global learners" who tend to perceive material holistically, contrasting with "analytical" learners who remember specific details and prefer to work alone. However, the efficacy of these models in predicting learning outcomes remains uncertain. Critics argue that discussions on learner styles often lack empirical evidence and may even perpetuate neuromyths. Yet, considering learner preferences can prompt teachers to reflect on their teaching practices and potentially adapt their approaches to better suit student needs. Instead of rigidly categorising learners, fostering learner autonomy and soliciting student feedback can lead to more effective teaching practices tailored to individual preferences. Errors Difference between “Mistakes” and “Errors”: "Mistakes" are slips or lapses in language production that occur due to performance factors such as fatigue or distraction. An example would be accidentally mispronouncing a word due to tiredness. "Errors" are systematic deviations from the target language norms and rules. An example would be consistently using the incorrect verb tense due to an incomplete understanding of the grammar rule. Errors in second language acquisition can arise from various sources, including the influence of the learner's native language (interlingual errors), incomplete knowledge of the target language (intralingual errors), communication strategies, and performance factors. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis: (CAH) posits that errors made by second language learners are primarily due to the influence of their first language. It suggests that learners transfer patterns and structures from their native language to the target language they are learning. Example: If a Spanish speaker learning English says "I have 20 years" instead of "I am 20 years old," it could be attributed to the influence of Spanish, where the equivalent expression would be "Tengo 20 años." Bi-directional errors: errors that are predicted to occur in both directions when comparing two languages. However, it's noted that these errors don't always occur as predicted. Error analysis: involves detailed descriptions of the errors made by second language learners. Its goal is to understand what learners know about the language based on the errors they produce. For example, if a learner says "buyed" instead of "bought," error analysis would seek to understand the learner's understanding of the past tense rule. Overt errors: are errors that are immediately noticeable or evident to both the learner and the observer. An example would be saying "I go store" instead of "I am going to the store." Covert errors: are errors that are not readily noticeable and may require further analysis to detect. An example would be using an incorrect preposition that doesn't significantly affect the comprehensibility of the sentence. Interlingual errors stem from differences between the learner's native language and the target language. They occur when learners transfer patterns or structures from their first language to the target language. Intralingual errors occur within the target language system and arise from incomplete knowledge or understanding of the language's rules and structures. The stages of learner language development include: Pre-production: The silent period where learners are absorbing language. Early production: Limited vocabulary and short phrases. Speech emergence: Increasing vocabulary and longer sentences. Intermediate fluency: More complex sentences and improved fluency. Advanced fluency: Near-native proficiency. It's important to consider these stages because they reflect the progression of learners' language abilities and can inform teaching strategies and expectations. Understanding where learners are in their development can help tailor instruction to their needs.