Applied Linguistics Booklet PDF

Ibn Tofail University Faculty of languages, letters, and arts Department of English Professor SMIRKOU Academic year: 2024-2025 APPLIED LINGUISTICS- S5 SYLLABUS  History of Applied Linguistics  The nature of a Applied L...

Ibn Tofail University Faculty of languages, letters, and arts Department of English Professor SMIRKOU Academic year: 2024-2025 APPLIED LINGUISTICS- S5 SYLLABUS  History of Applied Linguistics  The nature of a Applied Linguistics  Definitions of Applied Linguistics  Linguistics and Applied Linguistics  What is ‘applied’ about Applied Linguistics?  Applied Linguistics and Linguistics Applied  Stages in First Language Acquisition  Stages of Second Language Acquisition  Language Acquisition: Theoretical background  Structuralism  Behaviourism  Limitations of Behaviourist Theory  Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development  Piaget's view of Language Acquisition  The Innateness Theory  The Input Theory  Cognitive Theory  Universal Grammar Theory  Universal Grammar and Language Acquisition  The poverty of the stimulus  The language faculty  The notion of parameters  Second Language Acquistion  L1 vs. L2: Similarities and differences  Performance vs. Competence  Operant Conditioning  Reinforcements and punishments  Classical Conditioning  Pavlov’s experiment  Components of Classical Conditioning  Contrastive Analysis vs. Error Analysis  Interlanguage  Krashen’s five hypotheses about Second Language Acquisition  The causative variables in Second Language Acquisition  Acculturation  The Critical Period Hypothesis of Second Language Acquisition Theory  Language teaching approaches and methods  9 1 Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), Volume 5, Issue 1, (page 9 - 14), 2020 Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH) Volume 5, Issue 1, January 2020 e-ISSN : 2504-8562 Journal home page: www.msocialsciences.com An Overview of the History and Development of Applied Linguistics Mohamed AbdAlla AbdAlgane Mohammed1 1Department of English Language and Translation, College of Science and Arts-Arrass, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia Correspondence: Mohamed AbdAlla AbdAlgane Mohammed ([email protected]) Abstract ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ This study is conducted to highlight the brief history of applied linguistics, its development over the years and the work of a few people who have contributed a lot to the development of applied linguistics (AL). Many people have defined or described applied linguistics and some of their definitions will also be presented. These definitions will give you an idea of what applied linguistics entails and the various areas of language endeavor it covers. The main objective of this study is to familiarize EFL learners with the background and nature of the concept of applied linguistics, i.e. giving various definitions of applied linguistics as well as describing how applied linguistics became a discipline. The study adopts the descriptive methodology. Keywords: stapplied linguistics, second language acquisition, language assessment and testing, language policy and planning, lexicography, multilingualism, corpus linguistics ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ Introduction Scholars who have worked in applied linguistics have noted that it often deals with solving or at least ameliorating social problems involving language. Applied Linguistics (AL) answers questions such as; how can we teach language better? What type of individual differences do we have in language learning? What are the social influences that affect language learning? How can we write a valid language examination? How can we best advise Ministry of Education officials, curriculum planners and other stake holders in the Education Ministry on the content of a language curriculum for various groups of people and communities? In short, applied linguistics is interested mainly in language problems. All the areas mentioned above and some other relevant issues will be discussed in this study. What is Applied Linguistics (AL)? As of 1980, broad agreement was achieved among the major practitioners in the field that applied linguistics: (1) was interdisciplinary, drawing on a multitude of disciplines including psychology, sociology, and pedagogy as well as theoretical linguistics; (2) was not limited to language teaching but included a broad range of fields including lexicography, stylistics, speech pathology, translation, language policy, and planning among others; (3) performed a mediating function between theory and practice (Buckingham and Eskey 1980: 2–3). To these three characteristics, we should add that applied linguistics is “problem-based” (Corder 1973: 10) and brings linguistic insight and analysis to bear on practical issues of language use “situated in time, place, society, and culture” (Sridhar 1993: 7). www.msocialsciences.com  2 10 Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), Volume 5, Issue 1, (page 9 - 14), 2020 So many EFL learners might have probably taken some courses in psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, multilingualism and some others where the word ‘linguistics’ or ‘applied’ have been mentioned. In this study, a clarification of how some of these courses are related to language will be made. Some of the questions that people ask are: i. What kind of language should be the language of instruction in schools? ii. What are the procedures for the choice of a language where there are many languages? iii. How can we have valid language tests? These and many more are questions that arise frequently that have to be answered by language specialists. Our knowledge of applied linguistics will help us to answer some of these questions. Many people have tried to define or describe what applied linguistic is, below are some of them: Brumfit (1977:93) opines that: AL is the theoretical and empirical investigation of real world problems in which language is a central issue. Grabe (2000:9) proposes that: The focus of AL is on trying to resolve language based problems that people encounter in the real world, whether they be learners, teachers, supervisors, academics, lawyers, service providers, those who need social services, test makers, policy developers, dictionary makers, translators, or a whole range of clients. Grabe notes that distinguishing between what linguistics and AL are concerned with is to distinguish between theory and practice. According to Schmitt and Celce-Murcia (2002:1) AL uses what we know about (a) language (b) how it is learned and (c) how it is used in order to achieve some purpose or solve some problems in the real world. Schmitt and Celce-Murcia note that traditionally, the primary concerns of AL have been second language acquisition theory, second language pedagogy and the interface between the two. Davis and Elder (2006:11) note the following about AL: AL is, in our view, a coherent activity which theorizes through speculative and empirical investigations real world problems in which language is a central issue. History of Applied Linguistics The term applied linguistics which refers to the application of linguistics to the study and improvement of language teaching, language learning, language planning, management of language defects, communication between groups, lexicography, translation etc. owes its origin to US language–teaching programs during and after the second world war. According to Grabe (2002), (please see complete on- line reference at the end of the unit) it was largely based on Leonard Bloomfield’s outline guide for the practical study of Foreign Languages (1942), which was said to be influenced by the early European advocates of the direct method, in particular, Henry Sweet. The history of applied linguistics can be discussed in different countries as noted by Grabe (2002) in the next paragraph. In America, in 1948, a conference was organized by Charles C. Fries, supported, among others, by Kenneth L. Pike and W. Freeman Twaddell at the University of Michigan to disseminate information about work at Fries English Language Institute (founded 1941). At that conference, a quarterly journal of applied linguistics (titled- Language Learning) was started. In Britain as well, a school of Applied Linguistics was established by J.C. Cartford at the University of Edinburgh in 1956 and the center for AL was set up in Washington, DC, under Charles Ferguson in1959. It has been noted that similar institutes have been set up in various parts of the world. Grabe noted that national associations of applied linguists came together in 1964 to form the Association International de la Linguistique Appliquée (AILA) This association holds a four yearly international congress with published proceedings. www.msocialsciences.com  3 11 Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), Volume 5, Issue 1, (page 9 - 14), 2020 Davies and Elder (2006:6) commented on the symposium held at the American Association of Applied Linguistics (AAAL) in St Louis in the year 2001 where the history of applied linguistics was considered in four different countries. Angelis (2001) discussing the USA proposed a four-fold division of the history since the 1920s.The history was summarized thus: i. AL in North America does have identifiable roots in linguistics ii. While North American AL has evolved over time in its orientation and scope, so has North American linguistics iii. A significant amount of work directed to real world issues involving language can be attributed to leading North American linguists iv. Much of what can now be seen as ground breaking applied linguistics type activity was carried out prior to the formal appearance of applied linguistics. There was a gradual move away from the central focus on linguistics. Angelis notes that until the 1990s, there were a lot of language activities without much reference to linguistics. It was much later that scholars saw to need to link all these language activities to linguistics in terms of their applications. McNamara (2001) points to a different tradition for Australian applied linguistics in contrast to the ones for UK and US. To McNamara, Australian applied linguistics made AL of modern languages its target of immigrants rather than English. The application of linguistics to the development of teaching materials and writing systems for aboriginal languages was also focused on. The Australia tradition of AL shows a strong influence of continental Europe and of USA rather than of Britain. English came in the context of mother tongue teaching and teaching of English to immigrants- English as a Second Language (ESL). The English as a Foreign Language (EFL) British tradition got to Australia in the 1980’s. Scholars have noted that the important thing about AL in Australia is its concern for language in education, both with regard to new migrant languages and literacy in English. The British Association of Applied Linguistics (BAAL) was formally established in 1967 with the aim of advancing education, fostering and promoting by any lawful charitable means, the study of language use, language acquisition and language teaching and the fostering of interdisciplinary collaboration in this study (BAAL, 1994). Davies (2001) notes that the British tradition represented a deliberate attempt to establish a distinctive applied linguistics. Davies (2001) notes that, it was taken for granted in the 1960s and 70s that AL was about language teaching. Over the last 30 years, it became clear that those studying English language teaching had already studied aspects of linguistics. Lewis (2001:19) notes that AL is trying to resolve language– based problems that people encounter in the real world; to Davis and Elder (2006:9), AL has grown quickly and it is flourishing with academic positions, academic departments, international journals and an international association. Davis and Elder (2006:9) commented on Widdowson’s distinction between Linguistics Applied (LA) and Applied Linguistics (AL) thus: The differences between these modes of intervention is that in the case of linguistics applied, the assumption is that the problem can be reformulated by the direct and unilateral application of concepts and terms deriving from linguistic enquiry itself. That is to say, language problems are amenable to linguistic solutions. In the case of applied linguistics, intervention is crucially a matter of mediation…applied linguistics…has to relate and reconcile different representations of reality, including that of linguistics without excluding others (Widdowson, 2000, p.5). Davis and Elder (2006:9) note that the ‘linguistic applied’ view derives from the coming together of two traditions; one, the European tradition which was exported to the USA through scholars such as Roman Jacobson and the North American tradition of linguistic anthropological field work which required the intensive use of non-literate informants and the linguistic description of indigenous languages for cultural analysis. www.msocialsciences.com  4 12 Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), Volume 5, Issue 1, (page 9 - 14), 2020 Scholars such as Bloomfield (1933) and Robins thought that if a teacher understands the use of linguistics as a scientific method in language presentation, his/her work will be easy. Davis and Elder (2006) believe that AL looks outwards beyond language in an attempt to explain and solve social problems while linguistics applied looks inward not to solve language problems in the real world, but to explicate and test theories about language itself. To them, this means that LA uses language data to develop our linguistic knowledge about language while AL studies a language problem with the intention of correcting them (2006:09). Some Subfields of Applied Linguistics Kramsch. C. (2000:316) cites in Davies, A. (1999) that the field of AL includes, besides L1and L2 acquisition and the SLA-related fields mentioned previously, such areas of research as: communication in the professions, communication disorders, language and the media, language and the law, language policy and planning, translation and interpretation, language and technology, stylistics and rhetoric, literacy, discourse and conversational analysis, and sign language re-search. What binds these rather disparate areas of research under the rubric Applied Linguistics is the focus on the relationship between psycho- and sociolinguistic theory on the one hand and social practice on the other, as they relate to the acquisition and use of language in various contexts. Below are the commonly regarded subfields of applied linguistics as noted Grabe (2002). Second Language Acquisition Second language Acquisition theory deals with the range of variables- in particular, age of immersion, quantity of input etc which may interactively determine the level of ultimate attainment. Language Assessment and Testing Language Assessment plays a gate-keeping role in terms of the functions they serve for institutions and the corresponding preparedness of institutions to invest in their development and validation. It has always involved the development and implementation of frameworks for describing student’s progress in language learning over time. Language Policy and Planning The practical nature of language planning deals with the analysis of policy making in contexts where language is a part. Language problems always arise, which could involve rival interest reflecting relations among ethnic, political, social, and bureaucratic and class groupings. Language policy and planning research then draws on knowledge far beyond linguistics to solve such problems where necessary. Lexicography Lexicography is important and an integral part of applied linguistics in second/foreign language learning and teaching at all ages and levels of education. It is concerned with the writing and study of dictionaries for first/second/foreign language education. It also involves mono- bi- and multilingual works and general children’s school, college, and specialized technical dictionaries. Multilingualism This is the use of more than two languages within a speech community. Applied linguistics deals with the sociological, psychological, attending problems etc. and the implications of these languages on the speech community. www.msocialsciences.com  5 13 Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), Volume 5, Issue 1, (page 9 - 14), 2020 Corpus Linguistics This is aimed at improving language description and theory and Stubbs (2006) notes that the task of applied linguistics is to assess the relevance of the language description to practical applications. Corpus data are essentially for accuracy in the description of language use and have shown how lexis, grammar and semantics interact. Some of the supporting disciplines which you must have been introduced to are: i. Psycholinguistics ii. Education iii. Sociolinguistics iv. English studies v. Discourse studies Some other newly introduced ones are in the area of forensic linguistics (language and the law) and Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). You do not have to be scared about all these disciplines. It only shows that AL is a growing discipline and has a lot of other supporting disciplines. We will go through some of these while some other courses will take care of some of the other disciplines. In going through them, we will explain how each of the ones discussed relate to applied linguistics. On the Interdisciplinary Nature of AL and Relevance to Language Teaching AL is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with practical applications of language studies with particular emphasis on the communicative function of the language, and including such professional practices as lexicography, terminology, general or technical translation, language teaching (general, specialized language, mother tongue or second language), writing, interpretation, and computer processing of language. This shows the interdisciplinary nature of AL and the fact that it can be applied to any area of language study. Douglas L. Ride out in his comment on the book Applied Linguistics by Cook (2003), notes that: at its inception in the late 1950s, AL was principally concerned with language teaching especially second/foreign language teaching which became almost synonymous but over time the field grew and expanded to include other fields unrelated to second /foreign language teaching such as language policy and planning, forensic linguistics, clinical linguistics, critical discourse analysis, translation and interpretation and lexicography. Douglas noted that despite all these latest inclusion, the close association with second/foreign language still stands and that is why most introductory books about AL still devote a large amount of space to second/foreign language teaching. This shows that many other new disciplines may still be added as time goes on. AL is rich and therefore needs to be given a lot of attention. Conclusion This study shed the light on some of the several definitions of applied linguistics made by the various scholars. In addition, it also clarified the mutual relationship between applied linguistics and the other branches of linguistics. A historical background of applied linguistics is given in order to elucidate and acquaint EFL learners with the concept of applied linguistics. References Angelis, P. (2001). The Roots of Applied Linguistics in North America. Colloquium on the Roots of Applied Linguistics in Different Contexts. St Louis: AAAL. Applied Linguistics, 21(1), pp.3-25. Bloomfield, L. (1933). Language. London: Allen and Unwin. www.msocialsciences.com  6 14 Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), Volume 5, Issue 1, (page 9 - 14), 2020 Brumfit, C. (1977). How Applied Linguistics is the same as any other Science. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 7(1), pp.86-94. Buckingham, T. and Eskey, D. E. (1980). Toward a definition of applied linguistics. In R. Kaplan (ed.), On the Scope of Applied Linguistics (pp. 1–3). Rowley, MA: Newbury. Corder, S. P. (1973). Introducing Applied Linguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Davies, A. & Elder, C. (2006). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Davies, A. (1999). An introduction to applied linguistics: From practice to theory. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press. Davies, A. (2001). British Applied Linguistics. Colloquium on the Roots of Applied Linguistics in Different Contexts. St Louis: AAAL. Grabe, W. (2002). Applied Linguistics: An Emerging Discipline for the Twenty-First Century. In: B. Kapla (Ed.). Oxford Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Oxford University Press. Grabe, W. (Ed.). (2000). Applied Linguistics as an Emerging Discipline. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 2. Kramsch. C. (2000). Second Language Acquisition, Applied Linguistics, and the Teaching of Foreign Languages, The Modern Language Journal. Lewis, M. (2001). Looking Ahead in Applied Linguistics. Applied Linguistics Association of Australia Newsletter, New Series 44, pp.18-19. McNamara, T. (2001). The Roots of Applied Linguistics in Australia. Colloquium on the Roots of Applied Linguistics in Different Contexts. St Louis: AAAL. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Schmitt, N. & Celce - Murcia, M. (2002). An Overview of Applied Linguistics. In: N. Schmitt. (Ed.). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. London: Arnold, pp. 1-16. Sridhar, S. N. (1993). What are applied linguistics? International Journal of Applied Linguistics, Widdowson, H. (2000). “On the Limitations of Linguistics Applied.” www.msocialsciences.com  7  MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.3 Dr.Refnaldi, M. Litt Unit 1 THE NATURE OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS T he aim of this unit is to provide you with a broad and general outline of applied linguistics as an academic subject area. In so doing, we hope to answer some of the questions that new and prospective students of applied linguistics most frequently ask about the subject. In particular, we will try to provide clear answers to the following questions, which we are often asked by prospective students: - What is applied linguistics? - What is the difference between linguistics and applied linguistics? - What is applied about applied linguistics? - What is the difference between applied linguistics and linguistics applied The Definitions of Applied Linguistics If you have searched for definitions of applied linguistics on the Internet or in reference books, you may have been struck by how similar most of them seem to be. First, Brock University website defines applied linguistics as ‘the systematic study of language structure, the acquisition of first and subsequent languages, the role of language in communication, and the status of language as the product of particular cultures and other social groups’. Second, Wikipedia.org defines applied linguistics as ‘an interdisciplinary field of linguistics’ that covers ‘bilingualism and multilingualism, computer- mediated communication (CMC), conversation analysis, contrastive linguistics, sign linguistics, language assessment, literacies, discourse analysis, language pedagogy, second language acquisition, lexicography, language planning and policy, interlinguistics, stylistics, pragmatics, forensic linguistics and translation’. A typical definition of applied linguistics can be found on the website of the International Association for Applied Linguistics (AILA), the leading professional organization in the field. According to AILA: Applied linguistics is ‘an interdisciplinary field of research and practice dealing with practical problems of language and communication that can be identified, analyzed or solved by applying available theories, methods or results of Linguistics or by developing new theoretical and methodological frameworks in linguistics to work on these problems. 1.4 Applied Linguistics  8 The definition proposed by AILA is broad because it covers many different areas like child language acquisition, language and communication disorders, multilingualism, language testing, communication in the workplace, and so on. This definition is also considered narrow due to the relation of applied linguistics to linguistics proper. Turning to printed sources, we find the definitions of applied linguistics in the dictionary. First, Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (Richards et al. 2002: 28) defines applied linguistics even more concisely as ‘the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems.’ Second, Oxford Advance Learner Dictionary defines applied linguistics as ‘The branch of linguistics concerned with practical applications of language studies, for example language teaching, translation, and speech therapy.’ Next, Macmillian Dictionary.com defines applied linguistics as ‘the study of language for its practical uses, for example in teaching or speech therapy’. Many textbooks on applied linguistics also provide the definition of applied linguistics. Corder (1973) in his phenomenal book entitles Introducing Applied Linguistics states that “Applied linguistics is the utilization of the knowledge about the nature of language achieved by linguistic research for the improvement of the efficiency of some practical tasks in which language is a central component”. Schmitt and Celce-Murcia offer the following definition of Applied Linguistics: ‘Applied Linguistics is using what we know about (a) language, (b) how it is learned, and (c) how it is used, in order to achieve some purpose or solve some problem in the real world’ (Schmitt & Celce-Murcia, 2002: 1). They point out that traditionally, the primary concerns of Applied Linguistics have been second language acquisition theory, second language pedagogy and the interface between the two. Grabe’s definition is not far away: “the focus of applied linguistics is on trying to resolve language-based problems that people encounter in the real world, whether they be learners, teachers, supervisors, academics, lawyers, service providers, those who need social services, test takers, policy developers, dictionary makers, translators, or a whole range of business clients” (Grabe, 2002: 9). Perhaps all of the above definitions are neatly encapsulated in the best-known and most frequently-cited definition of all, originally formulated by the eminent applied linguist Chris Brumfit. Brumfit (1995: 27) says that ‘[applied linguistics is] the theoretical and empirical investigation of real-  9  MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.5 world problems in which language is a central issue’. Brumfit’s useful and concise definition of applied linguistics is both widely accepted and widely quoted. Cook and North (2010: 1) say that as the broad definition it has a number of advantages. First, it makes applied linguistics different from other branches of linguistics by focusing its orientation towards language-related problems, and it implies that the work in applied linguistics can have some impact upon those problems, potentially influencing how decisions are made about them. Second, it is also general enough to encompass the many disparate activities and areas of enquiry that call themselves applied linguistics. Several handbooks of applied linguistics also provide a wide variety of definitions related to applied linguistics. Simpson, the editor of The Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics, defines applied linguistics as “the academic field which connects knowledge about language to decision making in the real world... In this sense applied linguistics mediates between theory and practice” (Simpson, 2011: 1). Kaplan, in The Oxford Handbook of Applied Linguistics, says that “Applied linguistics is a difficult notion to define.” He goes on to say that the Handbook does not talk about the definitive definition of the field. Thus, these two very recent handbooks provide a wealth of examples of work in applied linguistics, which help to demonstrate the difficulty the editors faced in constructing a usefully precise and inclusively accurate definition of the field. Davies and Elder, editors of The Handbook of Applied Linguistics published by Blackwell, present a definition in concrete terms through multiple examples of the types of problems that applied linguists work on: Applied linguistics is often said to be concerned with solving or at least ameliorating social problems involving language. The problems applied linguistics concerns itself with are likely to be: How can we teach languages better? How can we improve the training of translators and interpreters? How can we write a valid language examination? How can we evaluate a school bilingual program? How can we determine the literacy levels of a whole population? How can we helpfully discuss the language of a text? What advice can we offer a Ministry of Education on a proposal to introduce a new medium of instruction?  10 1.6 Applied Linguistics  How can we compare the acquisition of a European and an Asian language? What advice should we give a defense lawyer on the authenticity of a police transcript of an interview with a suspect? (Davies & Elder, 2004: 1) When we pay attention to the above examples of questions we begin to realize that applied linguists address begin to rein in the “theory of everything.” In the questions one can see applied linguistics in terms of the areas of research it can encompass. At the same time, however, such questions because of their origin in everyday social practices may not reflect the academic and scholarly dimension of applied linguistics. One can easily find instances where someone offers an improvement for foreign language teaching, translator training, language-test development, and so forth, having no connection whatsoever to applied linguistics. The definition of applied linguistics then needs to extend beyond the questions posed because, as Bygate pointed out, “apparently simple questions conceal matters of complexity and sensitivity, which on closer scrutiny raise more general issues, which also characterize the broader field of applied linguistics” (Bygate, 2004: 6). Bygate identified five main issues in the broader field including (a) evaluating the appropriateness of the granularity and perspective researchers use to specify a problem under investigation, (b) establishing trustworthiness of data interpretation, (c) creating an appropriate degree of collaboration between researcher and participants, (d) communicating research results to participants in a manner that allows for sufficient follow up, and (e) understanding the best relationship of theory and data collection and interpretation. These issues underlie the discussion of language-related problems that readers find in the Encyclopedia. However, such issues stated generally can be said to underlie any social science more generally. To characterize applied linguistics, one needs to include explicitly the linguistic dimension of the field. The authors of Mapping Applied Linguistics accomplish this by defining applied linguistics as a mode of inquiry about language-related problems requiring consideration of “both the social and cognitive nature of language” (Hall, Smith, & Wicaksono, 2011: 19). Other ingredients of mode of inquiry are taking into account the needs of clients such as learners, test- score users, and businesses, being responsive to contextual factors affecting research, and engaging in collaboration in the design and evaluation of  11  MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.7 findings and recommendations. In short, Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono see applied linguistics as a mode of inquiry engaged with real people and issues arising in a political environment where academic perspectives and research alone may or may not be important in conceptualizing problems and finding solutions. In such an environment, problem solvers must genuinely engage with local knowledge and practice in seeking solutions. Based on all the definitions stated above, we can say that it is the belief that linguistics can offer insights and ways forward in the resolution of problems related to language in a wide variety of contexts that underlies the very existence of the discipline usually called applied linguistics. Applied linguists try to offer solutions to ‘real-world problems in which language is a central issue’ (Brumfit 1991:46), however tentative or ‘implied’ those solutions may be. What, then, might fall within the domain of typical applied linguistic problems? A list of such problems will certainly be wide-ranging and potentially endless, but might include the following: 1. A speech therapist sets out to investigate why a four-year-old child has failed to develop normal linguistics skills for a child of that age. 2. A teacher of English as a foreign language wonders why groups of learners sharing the same first language regularly make a particular grammatical mistake that learners from other language backgrounds do not. 3. An expert witness in a criminal case tries to solve the problem of who exactly instigated a crime, working only with statements made to the police. 4. An advertising copy writer searches for what would be the most effective use of language to target a particular social group in order to sell a product. 5. A mother-tongue teacher needs to know what potential employers consider important in terms of a school-leaver’s ability to write reports or other business documents. 6. A historian wishes to understand the meanings of place-names in a particular geographical area and how they have changed over time. 7. A person constructing a language test for non-native speakers for entry into further education needs to know what the key linguistic or psycholinguistic indicators are of reading ability in a second or foreign language.  12 1.8 Applied Linguistics  8. A literary scholar suspects that an anonymous work was in fact written by a very famous writer and looks for methods of investigating the hypothesis. 9. A dictionary writer ponders over possible alternatives to an alphabetically organized dictionary. 10. A computer programmer wrestles with the goal of trying to get a computer to process human speech or to get it to translate from one language into another. 11. A group of civil servants are tasked with standardizing language usage in their country, or deciding major aspects of language planning policy that will affect millions of people. 12. A body is set up to produce an international, agreed language for use by air-traffic controllers and pilots, or by marine pilots and ships’ captains. 13. A zoologist investigates the question whether monkeys have language similar to or quite distinct from human language and how it works. 14. A medical sociologist sets out to understand better the changes that occur in people’s use of language as they move into old age. (Cited form McCarthy, 2001: 1-2) Look at the problem no. 2 in the above list. The problem is “A teacher of English as a foreign language wonders why groups of learners sharing the same first language regularly make a particular grammatical mistake that learners from other language backgrounds do not.” In this case the teacher tries to understand why learners from the same language background are having difficulties with a particular grammatical structure in English. McCarthy (2001: 8) states that the teacher’s potential recourse to linguistics is likely to involve different areas depending on what questions are asked. The following figure shows some questions asked by the teacher.  13  MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.9 Figure 1.1: linguistic questions for the solution of a grammatical problem If we consider another of the problems, that of the dictionary writer looking for alternatives to the alphabetical dictionary, McCarthy (2001: 8) says that the different set of questions that might be asked by the lexicographers is shown in the following figure. Figure 1.2: Linguistic questions for the solution of a lexicographic problem The dictionary writer, like the language teacher, confronts the same basic questions: Can linguistics offer an approach or a solution to the problem at hand? If so, which branch(es) of linguistic study, and by what method(s)? How reliable is the information offered by linguists? How tenable are their theories and models of the language? How willing and ready are linguists to  14 1.10 Applied Linguistics  contribute to this kind of practical undertaking? The title of a paper by McCawley (1986), ‘What linguists might contribute to dictionary making if they could get their act together’, strikes a slightly pessimistic tone in this regard. If there is conflicting information to be had from the findings of linguists, how does one best evaluate which approach is likely to be most useful? Can the non-linguist take on such a task, or is this a job for highly trained specialists? Cook (2003: 5) provides some concrete examples of the kind of problems is language implicated and how they might be investigated. Here are a number of imaginary but representative situations in which decisions about language need to be taken. - The head teacher of a London school is thinking of offering another foreign language in addition to French. The options are Chinese (the world’s largest first language), Spanish (one of the world’s largest and most widely distributed languages), or the Indian language Gujarati (the largest second language in the school and local community, and one which has approximately forty-three millions speakers worldwide). Which of these languages should be taught, and why? - A business executive wants to learn Japanese in preparation for taking up a post in Tokyo. There are three courses available. Course One has a strong emphasis on learning to write. Course Two focuses on the spoken language, claiming that learning to write too early is demotivating. It does, however, explain the rules of Japanese grammar in English and use translation. Course Three’s approach is ‘natural’, with no translation or explanation of rules, but only a series of communicative classroom activities and tasks. Which course is the best choice, and why? (Cook, 2003: 5-6) Furthermore, Cook (2003: 6) also says that in order to respond the above language related problem, we can do several things. First, we can use our common sense and experience to evaluate the choice. However, if we recommend a particular course of action, we can obtain the benefit from more information derived from using the systematic approach, like doing needs analysis. Second, we can study what other people say on similar matters. It is also possible for us to make our own investigation by interviewing the parents and children in the school, do the observation, and  MPBI5104/MODUL 1 15 1.11 consult experts in language teaching. Thus, this process constitutes applied linguistics as an academic discipline. Linguistics and Applied Linguistics The role and relationship of the field of linguistics within applied linguistics has been variously interpreted in large part due to the ambiguity of the term applied linguistics. What is applied? Is it only linguistics? What is it applied to? Who is (not) an applied linguist? Is a degree in linguistics assumed? Or is it enough to be working with language-related issues? We should perhaps first clarify that general linguistics is different from ‘applied linguistics’. Hall, Smith and Wicaksono (2011: 41-42) say that General linguistics describes and theorizes about language and languages, and is an umbrella term for a number of sub-disciplines. General linguistics analyses the sound systems, grammars, vocabularies and discourse- organizing principles and practices of different languages, classifying various features, and identifying universal patterns as well as distinctive localized phenomena (this is the province of mainstream descriptive or theoretical linguistics). General linguistics also explores how these systems vary in time and space and context of use, and tries to describe and explain their acquisition and cognitive functioning. Moreover, Hall, Smith and Wicaksono (2011: 32) say that Sociolinguistic research explores variation, by collecting and analyzing data from different groups of users and in different situations, including bi- and multilinguals. Psycholinguistic experiments try to tap into mind-internal processes of learning, memory and use of one or more languages. General linguists use a range of methods, including speakers’ intuitions, language data collected from informants, non-linguistic data which correlates with language use (e.g. brain scans or translation times) and the analysis of massive computerized samples of language expression in writing and speech (corpus linguistics). What is the relation between linguistics and applied linguistics? When we look at the term applied linguistics literally, we simply say that applied linguistics is the application of linguistic theories. This opinion is supported by Hall, Smith and Wicaksono (2011: 32) who state that many people might think that a definition of applied linguistics would follow on quite naturally as another sub-discipline of general linguistics, presumably like applied physics follows from pure physics, where, for example, the latter can be used  16 1.12 Applied Linguistics  in seismology and engineering for the very practical purposes of earthquake detection and damage limitation. Hence, applied physics could be defined as ‘physics applied for practical use’. By analogy, then, the term ‘applied linguistics’ should refer to the application of general linguistics to practical use in additional language teaching, translation, speech therapy, etc. And indeed the findings, descriptions and theoretical models of general linguistics were originally so applied (almost exclusively to language learning and teaching). But that’s not what a good many present-day applied linguists believe their discipline is about, or what they themselves actually do. Actually there are many opinions about the relationship between linguistics and applied linguistics. Bearns and Matsuda (2006: 4) say that there three positions to explain their relationship. First, applied linguistics, because linguistics is part of its name, is linked to linguistics, which is sometimes referred to as the ‘parent’ discipline. The literal interpretation of applied linguistics as ‘linguistics applied’ reinforces this view. From this perspective, linguistics is the authoritative source for all that is needed to meet the aims of applied linguistics. The description of language and the concepts and terms offered by linguistic inquiry apply directly and unilaterally. The process or activity of applied linguistics is carried out by taking the known research and theory of linguistics and applying a linguistic analysis to specific contexts outside linguistics proper (e.g., language teaching, interpreting and translating, or lexicography). The second view is known as ‘autonomous applied linguistics.’ Autonomous applied linguistics sees applied linguistics as at least semiautonomous, if not completely autonomous, from linguistics or any source discipline and allows that anyone can be an applied linguist. While acknowledging that linguistics may be part of applied linguistics, practitioners do not rely exclusively on linguistics. A third view is known as the ‘applied linguistics’ position, so called because applied linguists are linguists engaged in application. It is distinguished from other views in its recognition that the knowledge and skills of a linguist are inadequate to the task of solving problems related to the uses and users of language. To address this inadequacy, the applied linguist calls upon the skills and knowledge of other professionals both inside and outside the academic world. Holders of this view more or less agree on what the field is, but the question of who can claim to be an applied linguist remains open.  17  MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.13 For many, applied linguistics is a sister (rather than a sub-) discipline of general linguistics. It is ‘applied’ in the ‘applied physics’ sense in that it deals with ‘practical use’, but it is not limited to applying the findings of general linguistics. Widdowson (2000) has called early conceptualizations of the field ‘linguistics applied’, placing the emphasis on (general) linguistics. For the moment, let’s use the term ‘autonomous applied linguistics’ for the contrasting conceptualization of applied linguistics as a sister discipline to general linguistics. We should point out, though, that despite the impression given by the many pages dedicated to the relationship in applied linguistics books and journals, not all teachers and researchers in the area have been preoccupied with the field’s legacy of association with general linguistics: indeed, many have no association with that field, don’t see a sharp division between them and/or don’t think it matters much. Brumfit (1995: 27) takes the focus of linguistics in his definition of the field as ‘the theoretical and empirical investigation of real-world problems in which language is a central issue’, and we think that’s a sensible move. Autonomous applied linguistics is a discipline concerned with the role language and languages play in perceived problems of communication, social identity, education, health, economics, politics and justice, and in the development of ways to remediate or resolve these problems. Scholars in autonomous applied linguistics address an increasingly broad range of language-related issues. Here’s a random sample of four topics to illustrate the scope of the subject: - the assessment of language proficiency and consequent social processes (e.g. identity construction) in sign language learners; - the analysis of the social, professional and economic impact of IT resources for translators; - the study of treatment and educational options for those minority language children who also happen to have language deficits; - the development of literacy norms for use in dictionaries as part of actions to maintain endangered languages. Because of this broad scope, autonomous applied linguistics draws on theory, findings and method from many other scholarly fields aside from general linguistics, including education, anthropology, sociology, public policy, health sciences, information technology and others. ‘Autonomous applied linguistics’ thus differs from ‘linguistics applied’ largely in terms of  18 1.14 Applied Linguistics  the scope of its objectives, methods and inputs. The following figure shows the differences between these two terms. (Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011:16) Figure 1.3: Views of the relationship between linguistics and applied linguistics It may be that a helpful way of distinguishing between what linguistics and applied linguistics are concerned with is to distinguish between theory and data. Kaplan proposed that applied linguistics is simply not in the business of developing new theories. Its concern is with new data. Looking forward, Kaplan suggests that applied linguists “are likely to move toward the analysis of new data, rather than continue to argue new theory” (Kaplan, 2002: 514). As such, the linguistics that will be of most use to the upcoming applied linguistics will be descriptive linguistics. Davies and Elder (2004) distinguish linguistics and applied linguistics in terms of difference of orientation. While linguistics is primarily concerned with language in itself and with language problems in so far as they provide evidence for better language description or for teaching a linguistic theory, applied linguistics is interested in language problems for what they reveal about the role of language in people’s daily lives and whether intervention is either possible or desirable. What this means is that applied linguistics is as much concerned with context as with language and will therefore be likely to draw on disciplines other than linguistics, for example, anthropology, education, psychology. It also means that the language problems with which  19  MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.15 applied linguistics concerns itself are often concerned with institutions, for example the school, the work-place, the law-court, the clinic. What is ‘Applied’ about Applied Linguistics? According to Groom and Littlemore (2011: 5), there are two contrasting types of applied subjects in higher education. The first type of applied subjects focuses very clearly on the practical applications of a single branch of academic knowledge. Applied mathematics, for example, studies how mathematical theories, concepts and processes can be used to solve practical problems in fields as diverse as engineering, computer science and economics. Similarly, applied geology investigates how academic knowledge produced in the ‘pure’ scientific field of geology can be exploited in practical areas such as mineral exploration, natural resource management and the construction industry. The second type is the applied subjects that have no ‘pure’ or ‘theoretical’ equivalents, and focus instead on a single (although often very broad) practical domain (Groom and Littlemore, 2011: 6). An example of the type is civil engineering. Civil engineering focuses on problems, questions and issues related to the built environment. The second example is education. It focuses on problems, questions and issues related to teaching and learning. Everybody knows that there is no ‘pure civil engineering’ or ‘theoretical education’ against which civil engineering or education as applied subjects can be contrasted. Thus, subjects such as civil engineering and education are not branches of any single academic discipline at all, but are entirely interdisciplinary in nature. Civil engineering draws on mathematics, physics, materials science, geography, geology, ecology and business management, among many other fields, without being reducible to any one of them. Likewise, education draws on research in disciplines as diverse as psychology, sociology, philosophy, economics and politics, but still maintains its own distinct identity as an academic subject area, and its own distinctive set of goals. Now we come the question ‘what kind of applied subject is applied linguistics?’ if we look at the name, we might say that applied linguistics belong to the first type of applied subject. However, applied linguistics is not the same as applied mathematics. Groom and Littlemore (2011: 6) say that although the name ‘applied linguistics’ suggests that it is an applied subject in the same way that applied mathematics and applied geology are applied  20 1.16 Applied Linguistics  subjects, applied linguistics is in reality closer in spirit to the second type of applied subjects like civil engineering or education. While it is certainly true that many if not most applied linguists see the academic discipline of linguistics as their nearest neighbor and most important source of intellectual inspiration, it is also the case that many applied linguists look to other fields for relevant insights into real-world language problems as well – to biology, cultural studies, economics, education, philosophy, politics, psychology and sociology, among others. There are even applied linguists who do not draw on linguistics at all. Researchers working in ‘critical’ applied linguistics, for instance, base their work almost entirely on theoretical concepts and frameworks derived from postmodernist critical theory, and regard academic knowledge in linguistics as ‘fairly irrelevant’ to their concerns (Pennycook 2004: 801). In summary, although applied linguistics enjoys a strong and productive working relationship with linguistics (as we hope to demonstrate throughout this book), our answer to the question ‘what is the difference between linguistics and applied linguistics?’ is this: applied linguistics is not a branch of linguistics, or of any other academic discipline, for that matter. It is an academic subject area in its own right, with its own set of concerns, its own academic journals, its own professional associations, its own academic qualifications, and its own professional pathways. Applied Linguistics and Linguistics Applied. Somewhere in the previous section we have introduce the two related terms; Applied Linguistics (AL) and Linguistics Applied (LA). In this section we are going to discuss in details these two terms. Widdowson presents the question in terms of linguistics applied and applied linguistics: The differences between these modes of intervention is that in the case of linguistics applied the assumption is that the problem can be reformulated by the direct and unilateral application of concepts and terms deriving from linguistic enquiry itself. That is to say, language problems are amenable to linguistics solutions. In the case of applied linguistics, intervention is crucially a matter of mediation.. applied linguistics... has to relate and reconcile different representations of reality, including that of linguistics without excluding others. (Widdowson, 2000: 5)  MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.17 Davies and Elder (2004: 9) state that the “linguistics applied” view seems to derive from the coming together of two traditions, the European philological tradition which was exported to the USA through scholars such as Roman Jakobson and the North American tradition of linguistic- anthropological field-work which required the intensive use of non-literate informants and the linguistic description of indigenous languages for the purposes of cultural analysis. The social value of applications of linguistics was widely canvassed. Bloomfield (1933: 509) hoped that “The methods and results of linguistics... [and] the study of language may help us toward the understanding and control of human affairs.” In the 1970s R. H. Robins, representing the European tradition, was eager to encourage the use of linguistic ideas and methods: “The teacher who understands and can make use of the methods of scientific linguistics will find the task of presenting a language to his pupils very much lightened and facilitated” (1971/1980: 308). Fifty years after Bloomfield, Douglas Brown (1987) was still making a similar claim: “Applied linguistics has been considered a subset of linguistics for several decades, and it has been interpreted to mean the applications of linguistics principles to certain more or less practical matters”. What of the applied-linguistics tradition? Davies and Elder (2004: 10) say that the two traditions overlap in the work of Henry Sweet. Howatt claims that “Sweet’s work established an applied tradition in language teaching which has continued uninterruptedly to the present day” (Howatt, 1984: 189). Howatt also refers to the influence of J. R. Firth, holder of the first Chair of General Linguistics in the UK, who had first-hand experience of language learning and teaching in India, and who with the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski and their pupil Michael Halliday promoted the notion of the context of situation. No doubt because of Firth’s lead, the identity of the context of situation school is still that of linguistics-applied in spite of its strong social orientation. John Trim records his view of the origin of the British Association of Applied Linguistics in an address which represents the view of the linguist looking at society’s problem. Actually, the real push to a coherent conception of the activity, an applied linguistics view, came from Corder who, while insisting on the centrality of linguistics, accepted the need for other inputs. It came even more strongly from Strevens who was eclectic in what he saw as a growing discipline. His account of the founding of the British Association for Applied Linguistics emphasizes the sociological and institutional reasons for forming a new professional group. 1.18 Applied Linguistics  Davies and Elder (2004: 11) see the distinction between applied linguistics and linguistics applied that Applied Linguistics (AL) looks outward, beyond language in an attempt to explain, perhaps even ameliorate social problems, while Linguistics Applied (LA) looks inward, concerned not to solve language problems “in the real world” but to explicate and test theories about language itself. So LA uses language data to develop our linguistic knowledge about language, while AL studies a language problem with a view to correcting it. Furthermore, Davies and Elder (2004: 12) says that Applied Linguistics is a coherent activity which theorizes through speculative and empirical investigations real-world problems in which language is a central issue. They intend to offer a coherent account of applied linguistics as an independent and coherent discipline, which, like similar vocational activities (for example general medicine, business studies, applied psychology, legal studies) seeks to marry practical experience and theoretical understanding of language development and language in use. The difference between Linguistics Applied and Applied Linguistics is sustainable only at the extremes. For example, the topics on language attrition or language description may be regarded as largely Linguistics Applied (LA), while the concerns of second language learning or of computer assisted language learning are mainly to do with Applied Linguistics (AL). But in between the distinction is hard to make. It is probably easiest for those topics in AL which deal with issues of language learning and language teaching because they have to do with the “real world,” that locution we all refer to when we think of how language is used rather than how it is studied. However, even in the area of language learning and language teaching the distinction falters and changes. Thus the topics of contrastive analysis and error analysis, which were both central to applied linguistics in its concern with language learning and language teaching, have evolved into the highly theoretical concern of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Research which is now less involved with language learning and language teaching and more concerned with linguistic and cognitive theorizing.  MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.19 EXER CI SE 1 1) After reading several definitions of applied linguistics you find that most of them are similar. What do you think most of them are similar? 2) State your own definition of applied linguistics! 3) Many people tend to agree with the inclusive or broad definition of applied linguistics. What are the advantages of using the broad definition? 4) McCarthy (2001) proposes a list of real problems that need to solved in the field of applied linguistics. One of them is: A person constructing a language test for non-native speakers for entry into further education needs to know what the key linguistic or psycholinguistic indicators are of reading ability in a second or foreign language. List at least five questions a language teacher asks to solve this problem! 5) What is the relationship between linguistics and applied linguisitcs? 6) What is the main difference between Applied Linguistics and Linguistics Applied? S UM MAR Y We have learned many difinitions of applied linguistics. These definitions actually can be classified into inclusive definition (broad definition) and exclusive definition (narrow definition). Despite the differences among the definitions provided, all definitions of applied linguistics deals with real world problems related to language. In addition to the discussion of the definitons, this unit also discusses the different relationship between linguistics and applied linguistics. Some people say that applied linguistics is a branch of linguistics because it applies linguistic theories in solving real world problems related to language, others say that it will be better to view applied linguistics as a sister rather that the sub-discipline of linguistics because the linguistics knowledge itself is not enough to solve the real problems related to language. Applied linguistics requires knowledge from other fields like education, psychology, sociology, cognitive science, and computer science. Finally, it is also important to differentiate between applied linguistics and linguistics applied. Applied Linguistics (AL) looks outward, beyond language in an attempt to explain social problems, while Linguistics Applied (LA) looks inward, concerned not to solve offer information about how words within a domain are related (Clark & Wong 2002). From the conversation, children will say what they are thinking about, and in fact, parents already understand about what chidren means. In learning to participate in conversations, children learn more of their language and more about how to use it (Snow 1978). 2.1.2 Stages In First Language Acquisition As children learn to talk, children go through a series of stages, beginning with infancy, when they are unable to converse and do not yet understand any language. Children go from babbling at seven to ten months old, to producing their first recognizable words six to twelve months later. Then, within a few months, they combine words and gestures, and produce their first word combinations around age two. This is followed by the production of ever more complex, adult like utterances, as they become active participants in conversation, taking turns and making appropriate contributions. They begin to use language for a larger array of functions – telling stories, explaining how a toy works, persuading a friend to do something, or giving someone directions for how to get somewhere. Between age one and age six, children acquire extensive skills in using language and can sound quite adult like much of the time. By around age ten to twelve, they have mastered many complex constructions, a good deal more vocabulary, and many uses of language. When human are born, he/she does not have suddenly the grammatical of his first language in his brain and completely with its rules. The native language is acquired through some stages, and every stage is passed near to adult’s language. There are six stages in children’s first language acquisition, namely: 1. Pre-talking stage / Cooing (0-6 months) According to Bolinger in Hutauruk (2002:283) pre-talking stage or cooing is the vowel-like sound responding to human sounds more definitely, turns head, eyes seem to search for speaker occasionally some chuckling sounds. For example, Miles (at the age of 4 months) demonstrating the cooing stage of language acquisition. He is producing vowel-like sounds (especially, the back vowels [u] and [o])in the sounds of “oh”, “uh”, and “ah”, typical of "cooing".He still finds difficulties in producing the vowel sound [i] except when he is screaming in “hiii”. Moreover in producing the consonant sounds like [b], [p], or [m], she is not able to produce them yet. 2. Babbling stage (6-8 months) Babbling is the sounds which infants produce as consonant-vowel combinations, Steinberg (2003:147). The sounds which are produced by infants but not all the speech sounds are same in language of the world such as [ma-ma-ma] or [da-da-da] and [ba-ba-ba] or [na-na-na]. As babbling progresses to meaningful speech, though, the relationship seems to get stronger. In babbling the child will chance on many of the various articulatory mechanisms for producin g speech and give practice to the use of those articulators. 3. Holophrastic stage (9-18 months) Fromkin (1983:328) defined holophrastic from holo “complete” or “undivided” plus phrase “phrase” or “sentence”. So holophrastic is the children’s first single word which represent to a sentence. Children using one word to express particular emotional state. For example, a child who has lost his mother in a market may cry out “mama”, it means that “i want mama”. 4. The two-word stage (18-24 months) Two-word stage is the mini sentences with simple semantic relations. As Fromkin (1983:329) states that children begin to form actual two-word sentences, with the relations between the two words showing definite syntactic and semantic relations and the intonation contour of the two words extending over the whole utterance rather than being separated by a pause between the two words. The following “dialogue” illustrates the kinds of patterns that are found in the children‟s utterances at this stage. Basically, a child at this age is already able to produce the consonant sounds like [j], [p], [b], [d], [t], [m], and [n]. 5. Telegraphic stage (24-30 months) Telegraphic is merely a descriptive term because the child does not deliberately leave out the noncontent words, as does an adult sending a telegram, Fromkin (1983:330). When the child begins to produce utterances that are longer than two words, these utterances appear to be “sentence-like”; they have hierarchical, constituent structures similar to the syntactic structures found in the sentences produced by adult grammar. 6. Later multiword stage (30+months) According to Bolinger in Hutauruk (2002:283) at this stage is fastest increase in vocabulary with many new additions everyday; no babbling at all; utterances have communicative intent. There is a great variation among children, seems to understand everything said within hearing and directed to them. 2.1.3 Telegraphic Stage  The telegraphic stage is the last stage of language before a child can speak fluently and begins roughly around 2.5 years of age and on ward indefinitely until a child has fluent language skills. Children at this stage progress very quickly and develop language at a much faster rate now that they have grasped the very essentials of language. During this stage, children seem to have a much better understanding of syntax and semantics. Over the course of this stage (more specifically after the age of two), children often expand their lexicon by as many as ten to twelve new words a day, most of which are new social interaction words such as yes, no, please, by, etc. to discover these new words, many children at this age ask a large amount of questions typically beginning with “wh question”, such as who, where, what ,when,why. For example : 'Where Mummy? What that?. They tend to develop a fairly good understand of what each individual word means and how to use it in a sentence. Children in the telegraphic stage are still lacking function words and morphemes and do not quite know how to use these in sentences, but when heard, they can understand them and how they give a sentence meaning. Before the child turns three it is likely to pass through the telegraphic stage. This progress appears to define the increase of words that are linked together in an utterance which is similar to a sentence and uses the right order of the elements (Yule 1996). It cannot be considered as a sentence yet, depending on the omission of crucial elements which seems to be grammatical words, such as the, is, and also word endings, such as –ing (Crystal 1997). Hence, the characteristics for this stage lie within the word-forms used instead of the amount of words. Nevertheless, it should not be forgotten that during this stage the vocabulary goes through a major enlargement up until around the age of three, when the child’s storage contains more than hundreds of words. The pronunciation has by then also improved with a step closer to the resemblance of adult language (Yule 1996).  Further, children begin to use more than one clause in their sentences and when they reach the age of four it is common to speed up the discovery of grammatical errors to sort them out. As the child grows older it will also advance more by using a higher level of vocabulary, an increased consciousness of the correct grammar, understanding underlying meaning etc (Yule 1996). During this stage children do not appear to commonly make word order errors even though the sentences are shortened. The order of the subject, verb and object is mostly correct, but increases during the later months of this stage. Children develop rapidly from age two onward and can move from relatively simple two-word utterances to a broad range of utterances within just a few short months. The most common words are the words of this stage include social interaction - for example, please, bye and no. Over the next months, this vocabulary grows by as much as ten or twelve new words a day. By age six most children have mastered about thirteen thousand words. 2.1.4 Acquisition of Semantics Semantics deals with the issue of using the right word/s in the right context in order for the utterance to make sense. When analysing the area of semantics the focus lies on what can be characterized with the word, phrase or sentence and not what can be associated. For example needle can be described with thin, sharp, steel instrument and it could also be connected with pain which is a personal association. It is a by now widespread belief in formal semantics that nominal constituents can be translated into expressions of different semantic types, namely, as individual-, quantifier-, and property-denoting expressions (Partee, 1987). Semantics is the study of meaning in language, there is more interest in certain aspects of meaning than in others. Special meaning that one individual might attach to words (Yule 1996).  Access for Success Stages of Second Language Acquisition Stage of Second What Happens at This Stage This stage typically Language At this stage, the learner can … occurs _____ from Acquisition time of initial L2 exposure Pre-production This phase is often referred to as the Silent 0 to 6 months Period because learners may not speak at all. It is a receptive phase where learners are, for the most part, absorbing the language. Learners may repeat what is being said (parroting) and may have up to 500 words in their receptive vocabulary. In addition to parroting, they can offer non-verbal responses to questions and, sometimes, responses with high-frequency words (Yes/No). They are not generating their own spontaneous language. Early Production Learners continue to add to their receptive 6 to 12 months language and are more regularly offering one- and two-word responses to questions. They are able to identify key words and ideas in the language. During this stage, learners have the ability to produce a limited number of words. They use familiar phrases that may or may not have been memorized. They generally use the present verb tense when communicating. Learners in the early production stage have a vocabulary of about 1000 words. Speech Emergence Learners are more actively balancing their 1 to 3 years receptive and expressive language. Students can follow the general gist of texts and can identify certain details within those texts. Spontaneous language production is becoming easier, but still may require teacher prompting. Learners in this stage can use short sentences and can produce questions. They have also expanded their receptive and expressive vocabulary to roughly 3000 words. They make errors when communicating, but the errors generally do not interfere with comprehension. Access for Success: Making Inclusion Work for Language Learners Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. This page may have been modified from its original.  Stage of Second What Happens at This Stage This stage typically Language At this stage, the learner can … occurs _____ from Acquisition time of initial L2 exposure Intermediate Learners are working with more complex 3 to 5 years Fluency dimensions of language, grammatically, in terms of vocabulary, and in meaning. Their spoken language is increasingly smooth, and they can attend to big ideas and details within a text. These learners use more complex sentences when communicating. They are also able to think in the target language and have a working vocabulary (receptive and expressive) of about 6000 words. Advanced Fluency To a large degree, these learners resemble 5 to 7 years students who have been using the target language as a first language. Advanced language learners can navigate with ease a variety of social and academic situations. They are comfortable communicating in the target language. They may have errors in some aspects of language, particularly with less common structures and words. NOTE: The information about the stages of second language acquisition presented above synthesizes the initial work of Krashen and Terrell (1983) with others (e.g., Coelho, 2004; Fairbairn & Jones-Vo, 2010; Hill and Flynn, 2008). Sources: Coelho, E. (2004). Adding English: A guide to teaching in multilingual classrooms (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON: Pippin; Fairbairn, S. B., & Jones-Vo, S. (2010). Differentiating instruction and assessment for English learners: A guide for K–12 teachers. Philadelphia, PA: Caslon; Hill, J. D., & Flynn, K. (2008). Asking the right questions: Teachers’ questions can build students’ English skills. Journal of Staff Development, 29(1), 46–52. Retrieved from www.nsdc.org; Krashen, S., & Terrell, T. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press. Access for Success: Making Inclusion Work for Language Learners Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. This page may have been modified from its original.  h a n g e Vi h a n g e Vi XC e XC e F- w F- w PD PD er er ! ! W W O O N N y y bu bu to to k k lic lic C C w w m m w w w w o o.d o.c.d o.c c u -tr a c k c u -tr a c k LANGUAGE ACQUISITION : THEORETICAL BACKGROUND N. Sureshkumar “Evolving a new english language acquisition programme at primary level - A cognitive interactionist approach” Thesis.Department of English, University of Calicut, 2002  h a n g e Vi h a n g e Vi XC e XC e F- w F- w PD PD er er ! ! W W O O N N y y bu bu to to k k lic lic C C w w m m w w w w o o.d o.c.d o.c c u -tr a c k c u -tr a c k experienced the warmth of the interaction, between mother, and child is likely to get affected by serious imperfections. 3.3.3.4. Noam Chomsky Ever since the Chomskyan model of linguistics came into being in 1957, a number of ideas have emerged during the past few decades based on the notion of Universal Grammar(UG). These are: a. There is UG in human mindbrain as a genetic endowment. b. No one knows what his innate knowledge is. c. UG has a number of subsystems of components. Each component is associated with a cluster of properties of language. Presently we will elaborate the notion of UG and the role it plays in language acquisition. 3.4. HOW DO WE LEARN LANGUAGE? Both the East and the West have contributed their own claims and theories about language learning at various points of time. Let us examine the important theories and research findings in this realm. 3.4.1. Behaviourism It was Behavioural psychologists who first proposed a seemingly sound theory based their experiments conducted with regard to the behavioural change manifest in animals. The chief proponents of Behaviourism were psychologists such as Pavlov, Thorndike, and Skinner. The behaviourists unconditionally subscribe to the "tabula rasa" account proposed by John Locke, which maintains that the child is born with an empty slate-like mind which -eets filled in by experiences from outside. Behaviourists claim that language development is the result of a set of habit formation. They believed that knowledge is the product of interaction with the environment  h a n g e Vi h a n g e Vi XC e XC e F- w F- w PD PD er er ! ! W W O O N N y y bu bu to to CHAPTER 3 k k lic lic 52 C C w w m m w w w w o o.d o. c.d o.c c u -tr ack c u -tr a c k through stimulus-response conditioning. All learning, whether verbal (language) or non- verbal (general learning) takes place by means of the same process namely, habit formation. When it comes to language acquisition the theory proposes that the acquirer receives linguistic input from speakers in their environment and positive reinforcement from their correct repetitions and imitations. If the learner's positive responses are reinforced positively, they acquire language easily. Behaviourists are of the view that language is manifested through the performance of the four skills. These are Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing (LSRW). Naturally learning a language means learning these skills. This is possible only through constant practice. It is also argued that ianguage is the totality of language facts such as structures, vocabulary, usage. Language learning is believed to be materialized by learning grammar and vocabulary. 3.4.2.Structuralism If behaviourism was dominating the field of psychology, the linguistic field wa-Sunder the influence of structuralism as conceived by the linguist Bloomfield and his followers. Structuralists showed that any sentence can be analyzed as its constituents called morphemes, which in turn can be split fkrther to get the smallest units called phonemes. Structuralists developed a method of linguistic analysis called "the discovery procedure" using which they claimed the structure of any language can be analysed. With the onset of structuralism linguistics as a discipline was attributed the status of pure sciences. Behaviourism and structuralism joined hands in deciding the methodology for teaching languages. 3.4.3. Limitations of Behaviourist Theory All the arguments raised by behaviourists and structuralists were severely criticized by cognitive psychologists. It was initiated by the publication of Syntactic Structures (1957),  h a n g e Vi h a n g e Vi XC e XC e F- w F- w PD PD er er ! ! W W O O N N y y bu bu to