Language Acquisition Theories Quiz

• The first language (L1) acquisition theories lead to interlanguage theories, which leads to second language acquisition (SLA) research studies
• There have been at least three theories that have offered new ideas on L1 acquisition.

Behaviorist Theory (1920-1950)

• Children learn language by imitating and practicing what they hear
• Teachers influence this process via reinforcements
• Positive reinforcement, like praise, increases the likelihood of repeated behavior
• Negative reinforcement, like criticism, decreases that likelihood
• Language learning relies on habit formation
• Learning occurs due to external stimuli and reinforcement, resulting in behavior change
• Habits are formed by associating a specific response with a particular stimulus, becoming automatic when the stimulus is presented
• Language learning occurs through operant conditioning, where behaviors are strengthened or weakened by consequences

Mentalist Theory (1950-1960)

• Children possess a biological predisposition for language learning from birth
• Chomsky challenged behaviorism, highlighting the creative capacity of child language use and proposing a different language acquisition view
• Introduced the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), containing universal grammatical principles
• Children develop grammar by testing hypotheses, applying general rules to specific situations, such as overgeneralization
• The Universal Hypothesis suggests core grammatical rules exist across languages
• Lenneberg argued that only humans possess the capacity to acquire language
• Lenneberg and Chomsky suggest humans have an innate capacity for language learning, supporting the Mentalist or Innatist Theory

Social Interactionist Theory (1970)

• Social interaction and linguistic environment are significant in language development, integrating behaviorist and innatist aspects
• Focuses on the essential role of social environment and interactions in linguistic learning
• Prioritizes language pragmatics and language use in real communication situations
• Interactions between novice and experienced speakers are important in a constant negotiation, where feedback is essential for learning
• Language learning combines learner's mental abilities and linguistic input from the environment
• Bruner (1978) suggests turn-taking in caregiver-infant interactions
• Snow (1976) emphasizes adults' active role in infant language acquisition through protoconversations

Interlanguage Theories (1970)

• This theory refers to the transitional linguistic stage second language learners undergo when acquiring the target language
• Serves as an intermediate language between the learner’s first language and the target language
• Five principal processes within interlanguage were identified
• Language transfer from L1
• Overgeneralization of target language rules and features
• Transfer of training, referring to specific elements taught in L2
• Strategies of L2 learning: reducing target language to a simpler system
• Strategies of L2 communication: used by learners in communicating with native speakers
• Interlanguages are natural languages with permeable grammars
• Learners employ unique learning strategies, separate from the linguistic rules of the language system
• First language influences second language acquisition
• Interlanguage is a range continuum of speech styles based on learners’ attention to language form
• Explains how learners organize form-function relationships in a second language using a functional approach
• Interlanguage systems have permeability, dynamism, and systematicity, evolving until complete target language acquisition

Second Language Acquisition Theories

• Learning is a behavior change as a result of external stimuli and reinforcement

Behaviorist Theory (1900-1950)

• Focuses on observable behaviors and responses to stimuli
• Learner: passively receives external stimuli/reinforcement; learns by imitation/repetition and practice
• Teacher: controls stimuli/reinforcements (drills) to shape desired behaviors
• Critiques include ignorance of internal states (rigid), viewing behavior as predictable and controllable through stimulus-response relationships, like machines
• Overlooks internal cognitive processes, social interactions, and emotions to influence behavior leading to a limited focus on meaning and communication
• The learner will transfer realization from L1 to L2
• Differences can make it difficult

Cognitive Theory (1950-1970)

• Language acquisition is a natural human ability
• Focuses on how individuals process/assimilate linguistic information
• Emphasizes on comprehension, memory, and problem-solving
• Grammar acquisition is central
• Language learning is both conscious and unconscious
• Children are born with the innate ability to learn a language via the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
• Learner: an active information processor, using cognitive resources to learn/retain language
• Teacher: designs instructional materials/activities that engage cognitive processes
• Critics includes focus too heavily on internal mental processes and neglect of social, cultural, and emotional factors

Krashen's Monitor Model (1970-1980)

• Learning is conscious, with formal instructions, grammar and error correction
• Occurs through comprehensible input
• Learner: passive recipient of comprehensible input
• Teacher: provider of comprehensible input
• Includes five central hypotheses
• Language is acquired subconsciously through exposure/communication, while learning involves explicit instruction
• Learned language monitors/corrects speech produced through acquired language
• Learners acquire grammatical structures in a predictable sequence
• Learners enhance language skills by understanding input slightly beyond their current level
• Emotional factors like anxiety/motivation affect language acquisition success
• Critics include limited role of conscious learning, restrictive conditions, generalization of language acquisition and difficulty with application

Constructivist Theory (1980-2000)

• Learning occurs via meaningful, real-world experiences
• Scaffolded, builds on prior knowledge, including meaningful learning and active engagement
• Its learning mechanisms include problem-solving, discovery and social interaction
• Learner: active participant constructing knowledge through interaction/experience
• Teacher: facilitator and guide

Relationship Between Theories

• Each theory provides a unique perspective on language learning Complementarity: Behaviorism focuses on practice and repetition, constructivism emphasizes meaningful interaction, Krashen emphasizes on comprehensible/affective factors, and cognitive theory emphasizes mental processes
• Behaviorism and constructivism both recognize the importance of practice/interaction, though they differ in approach

Internal and External Processes

• Cognitive theory and Krashen's model highlight the importance of internal mental processes and appropriate input
• Complements the perspectives of behaviorism and constructivism on practice/interaction

Affective Aspects

• Constructivism and Krashen recognize the essential role of emotional/social factors in learning
• These aspects are not directly addressed by behaviorism and cognitive theory

CEFR Levels

• Proposes a six-level reference frame describing student ability
• Ranges from A1 (Beginner) to C2 (Advanced)

Teaching Young Learners

Child Development

• Cognitive: occurs when the children speak, solve, etc
• Social/Emotional: includes gestures, eye contact, etc
• Speech/Language: how the children speak
• Fine Motor Skills: related to motricity, or writing
• Gross Motor Skills: how the run and walk

How Children Learn

• Piaget explains children learn by interacting with their physical development through individual exploration
• Vygotsky suggests children construct knowledge through social interaction through Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
• Bruner emphasizes scaffolding, where adults provide structured support, like creating tasks and controlling frustration

Language Learning Environment

• Environment for L1 and L2 acquisitions can be different
• L1 Environment: highly contextualized, authentic in real world
• Learners are highly motivated
• L2 Environment: decontextualized and artificial in the classroom
• Learners may not be highly motivated

Helpful Teaching Ideas

• Supplement activities with visuals, movement, and realia (real-life objects)
• Involve students in making visuals and provide realia
• Move from activity to activity to maintain engagement
• Teach in themes and connect language to familiar stories/contexts
• Establish regular classroom routines in English
• Use the student's L1 as a necessary resource
• Bring in community members and collaborate with other teachers
• Communicate with other teaching English to young learners (TEYL) professionals

Being a Learner

• Age is important
• Critical Period Hypothesis states that language learning ends around puberty (Penfield & Roberts, 1959)

Young Learners

• They are keen and enthusiastic
• The children are noisy (chatterboxes) and like to experiment (curious)
• Want to have fun and love attention
• Have short attention spans and can be hard to calm down
• Don't respond very well to grammar
• Use senses for understanding
• They like being praised and are self-centered like playing
• Are comfortable with routines
• Classroom should blend play, learning and be colorful

Teenagers (12 and Above)

• Can distinguish between fact and fiction
• They are discovering new possibilities but are unsure, have changing/low motivations and easily get bored
• Activities may be affected by embarrassment
• May seem outspoken and feel like discipline is imposed
• Needs security amidst bewildering world through "synaptic pruning"
• Ask a lot of questions, have likes
• May not need the physical word, can understand abstract concepts
• Have intense emotions and passionate attachments

Adults

• Usually feel embarrassed and are critical, demanding
• Can engage with abstract thought because they have expectations
• Tend to be more disciplined and have experiences for activities
• They have understandings of why they are learning but may have had failures
• May have pronunciation difficulty

Classes

• Should be spontaneous and natural (Ross 2009)

Cognitive and Learning Styles

• Defined as behavioral indicators of how learners perceive and respond to learning environments (Keefe 1979)
• Predispositions based on personality types

Learning Styles

• How people respond to their learning situation

Concrete

• Are direct, curious, and willing to take risks but dislike routines
• They use active/direct means of taking in and processing information and are interested in immediate value
• Prefer games, pictures, pairs

Analytical

• Independent, prefer logical material
• They solve problems
• Can be vulnerable
• Push themselves hard, but study grammar and have the teacher find their mistakes

Communicative

• Prefer a social approach in discussions
• Need feedback, and like to watch

Authority-Oriented

• Are responsible and dependable
• They need clear instructions and prefer authority

Learning Strategies

• Specific procedures learners use
• Offers advantages

Effective Learning

• Identified six general types (Vann and Abraham, 1990; Oxford 1990)

Memory Strategies

• Help students store information by linking new words, images, sounds, actions, or sensations

Cognitive

• Help learners produce new language by using formulas and patterns or focusing on the message/structure

Compensation

• Allow communication despite language barriers

Metacognitive

• Allow control of own learning

Affective

• Help control attitudes

Social

• Help learners interacts with other people by asking questions and empathize

Learners Style

• Includes metacognitive, social, and affective strategies with feelings and motivation (James Purpura)

Variables

• Have been used to describe perceptual preferences

Perceptual Preferences

• Refer to reactions visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, and gustatory stimuli

Personality Factors

• Suggest individuals may be more extroverted/introverted

Multiple Intelligences

• Howard Gardner's theory explains that people do not possess single intelligence but rather a variety of "intelligences":
• Linguistic: using words
• Logical-mathematical: numbers
• Spatial: visual
• Bodily-kinesthetic: expertise using ones whole body
• Musical: capacity of rhythm
• Interpersonal: ability to perceiving others
• Intrapersonal: self knowledge
• Naturalist: recognizes species

Errors

• Refers to when learning is incorrect

Intelligence Models

• Can prompt reflection and adaptation and soliciting student feedback

Errors

• Are systematic deviations in rules

Mistakes

• Are slips from fatigue

Contrastive analysis

• Errors are from first language

Bi-Directional

• Are not always predictable

Errors analysis

• Describes errors in learning

Overt Errors

• Are immediately noticeable

Covert Errors

• Are require to noticed

Interlingual errors

• Stem from second language

Intralingual errors

• Occur on the target system

Stages of Language Development

• Pre production is silent
• Early production is limited
• Speech emergence is increasing
• Fluency occurs in intermediate stages
• Near Native is advanced Are all important to note.

Test your knowledge of Behaviorist, Mentalist, and Social Interactionist theories of language acquisition. Explore key concepts from theorists like Chomsky and Skinner. Understand the role of innate abilities and environmental factors in language development.