Fundamentals of Computer BCA PDF

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER  INTRODUCTION A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and processes it with a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as output. It renders output just after performing mathematical and logic...

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER  INTRODUCTION A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and processes it with a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as output. It renders output just after performing mathematical and logical operations and can save the output for future use. It can process numerical as well as non-numerical calculations. The term "computer" is derived from the Latin word "computare" which means to calculate.  A computer is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions through integrated hardware and software components. It works with the help of programs and represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. It also has a memory that stores the data, programs, and result of processing. The components of a computer such as machinery that includes wires, transistors, circuits, hard disk are called hardware. Whereas, the programs and data are called software.  Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It processes the input according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output quickly. A Computer can perform the following set of functions: Accept data Store data Process data as desired Retrieve the stored data as and when required Print the result in desired format.  OF COMPUTER  Characteristics of Computer System Let’s go over the characteristics of computers. 1. Speed Executing mathematical calculation, a computer works faster and more accurately than human. Computers have the ability to process so many millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. Computer operations are performed in micro and nano seconds. A computer is a time saving device. It performs several calculations and tasks in few seconds that we take hours to solve. The speed of a computer is measure in terms of GigaHertz and MegaHertz.  2. Diligence A human cannot work for several hours without resting, yet a computer never tires. A computer can conduct millions of calculations per second with complete precision without stopping. A computer can consistently and accurately do millions of jobs or calculations. There is no weariness or lack of concentration. Its memory ability also places it ahead of humans. 3. Reliability A computer is reliable. The output results never differ unless the input varies. the output is totally depend on the input. when an input is the same the output will also be the same. A computer produces consistent results for similar sets of data, if we provide the same set of input at any time we will get the same result.  4. Automation The world is quickly moving toward AI (Artificial Intelligence)-based technology. A computer may conduct tasks automatically after instructions are programmed. By executing jobs automatically, this computer feature replaces thousands of workers. Automation in computing is often achieved by the use of a program, a script, or batch processing.  5. Versatility Versatility refers to a capacity of computer. Computer perform different types of tasks with the same accuracy and efficiency. A computer can perform multiple tasks at the same time this is known as versatility. For example, while listening to music, we may develop our project using PowerPoint and Wordpad, or we can design a website  6. Memory A computer can store millions of records. these records may be accessed with complete precision. Computer memory storage capacity is measured in Bytes, Kilobytes(KB), Megabytes(MB), Gigabytes(GB), and Terabytes(TB). A computer has built-in memory known as primary memory. 7. Accuracy When a computer performs a computation or operation, the chances of errors occurring are low. Errors in a computer are caused by human’s submitting incorrect data. A computer can do a variety of operations and calculations fast and accurately. Concept of Hardware and Software Computer hardware is a collective term used to describe any of the physical components of an analog or digital computer. The term hardware distinguishes the tangible aspects of a computing device from software, which consists of written, machine-readable instructions or programs that tell physical components what to do and when to execute the instructions. Hardware and software are complementary. A computing device can function efficiently and produce useful output only when both hardware and software work together appropriately. Computer hardware can be categorized as being either internal or external components. Generally, internal hardware components are those necessary for the proper functioning of the computer, while external hardware components are attached to the computer to add or enhance functionality What are internal computer hardware components? Internal components collectively process or store the instructions delivered by the program or operating system (OS). These include the following: Motherboard. This is a printed circuit board that holds the central processing unit (CPU) and other essential internal hardware and functions as the central hub that all other hardware components run through. CPU. The CPU is the brain of the computer that processes and executes digital instructions from various programs; its clock speed determines the computer's performance and efficiency in processing data. RAM. RAM -- or dynamic RAM -- is temporary memory storage that makes information immediately accessible to programs; RAM is volatile memory, so stored data is cleared when the computer powers off.  Hard drive. Hard disk drives are physical storage devices that store both permanent and temporary data in different formats, including programs, OSes, device files, photos, etc. Solid-state drive (SSD). SSDs are solid-state storage devices based on NAND flash memory technology; SSDs are non-volatile, so they can safely store data even when the computer is powered down. Optical drive. Optical drives typically reside in an on-device drive bay; they enable the computer to read and interact with nonmagnetic external media, such as compact disc read-only memory or digital video discs. Heat sink. This is a passive piece of hardware that draws heat away from components to regulate/reduce their temperature to help ensure they continue to function properly. Typically, a heat sink is installed directly atop the CPU, which produces the most heat among internal components.  Graphics processing unit. This chip-based device processes graphical data and often functions as an extension to the main CPU. Network interface card (NIC). A NIC is a circuit board or chip that enables the computer to connect to a network; also known as a network adapter or local area network adapter, it typically supports connection to an Ethernet network. Other computing components, such as USB ports, power supplies, transistors and chips, are also types of internal hardware.  External hardware components, also called peripheral components, are those items that are often externally connected to the computer to control either input or output functions. These hardware devices are designed to either provide instructions to the software (input) or render results from its execution (output). Common input hardware components include the following: Mouse. A mouse is a hand-held pointing device that moves a cursor around a computer screen and enables interaction with objects on the screen. It may be wired or wireless. Keyboard. A keyboard is an input device featuring a standard QWERTY keyset that enables users to input text, numbers or special characters. Microphone. A microphone is a device that translates sound waves into electrical signals and supports computer-based audio communications.  Camera. A camera captures visual images and streams them to the computer or through a computer to a network device. Touchpad. A touchpad is an input device, external or built into a laptop, used to control the pointer on a display screen. It is typically an alternative to an external mouse. USB flash drive. A USB flash drive is an external, removable storage device that uses flash memory and interfaces with a computer through a USB port. Memory card. A memory card is a type of portable external storage media, such as a Compact Flash card, used to store media or data files. Other input hardware components include joysticks, styluses and scanners.  Examples of output hardware components include the following: Monitor. A monitor is an output device similar to a TV screen that displays information, documents or images generated by the computing device. Printer. Printers render electronic data from a computer into printed material. Speaker. A speaker is an external audio output device that connects to a computer to generate a sound output. Headphones, earphones, earbuds. Similar to speakers, these devices provide audio output that's audible only to a single listener.  Computer Software Components: 1. Operating System (OS): The operating system (OS) is the core program that controls computer hardware resources and gives users a way to communicate with the system. Windows, macOS, and Linux are a few examples of well-known operating systems. 2. Application Software: Programs created to carry out particular duties or functions are referred to as application software. Word processors, online browsers, spreadsheets, photo editing programs, and video players are a few examples. For them to operate, the underlying operating system is essential. Software of this type has specific activities that relate to end users and their usability. Unlike system software, they are not necessary for the functioning of a computer. The installation and removal of this program depends on what the users desire. However, the choice is based on the requirements. They could only have one programme or numerous programmes.  a. Word Processing Software This piece of software enables users to produce work which can be edited and which can be revisited at any point in time. They can add textual information or update the available content as needed. The other functionalities in addition to this capability may also be available depending on the specific application. Wordpad, Google Docs, or Microsoft Word are among them. b.Spreadsheet Software The purpose of this is to create spreadsheets and to work with information and numbers. To table all of the data in an accurate way it has grids and columns, which makes it easy for the user to keep records. Large files data processing is made possible by it. Besides, there are also chances of computing with the aid of different formulas. There are various examples, for instance, Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets, and other apps.  c. Applications for Multimedia These are used for editing movies, audios, and texts, and also provide the users the ability to merge text, audio, and video. They are able to use multimedia software to improve their documents by incorporating visually appealing and auditorily engaging elements. For example, the VLC player, Premier Pro, Window Media Player, and others are types of such programmes. d. Enterprise Software The enterprise software is developed to tackle certain processes that are carried out within the business that the company has a large number of tasks that have to be completed no matter the circumstances. This stands true for things like bookkeeping, billing, inventory management, online traffic analysis, and so forth. MailChimp, Google Analytics, and different customer support systems are just some providers of such platforms.  3. Programming Software There are many types of software that writes programs by transforming different programming languages into machine code. These tools are used by the developers in building, debugging and maintaining programs. A few other names for it include programming and software development tools. For example, Eclipse, Coda, Notepad++ and others belong to this type. 4. Device Drivers: Device drivers are software applications that connect and interact with hardware devices on behalf of the operating system. They serve as translators, turning requests from the OS into instructions that are understood by particular hardware components.  5. Firmware: Software that is integrated with hardware devices is known as firmware. During system startup, it initializes hardware and offers low-level control. It is a low-level program that serves a very specific function in directing hardware to undertake its tasks. Its role is very specific. Most of them are permanent and once they have been established, they are difficult to alter. Some people think that it is an element of the hardware system; however, it is not. Controlling the hardware this is what makes it possible for it to work. It should be distinguished from the operating system because it is not modifiable after it has been implemented. An operating system performs the duties that are above it, yet it is also in the charge of controlling individual devices.  History Introduction Abacus (c. 2700 BC) First Generation – Vacuum Tubes (1940 – 1956) Second Generation – Transistors (1956 – 1963) Third Generation – Integrated Circuits (1964 – 1971) Fourth Generation – Microprocessors (1972 – 2010) Fifth Generation – Artificial Intelligence (2010 Onwards)  Father of Computing - Charles Babbage Charles Babbage was an English inventor and mathematician who, in the 1800's, believed he could build a computing machine. In 1827, after convincing the British government to finance his project, he worked for years on his Difference Engine, a device intended for the production of tables. While he produced prototypes of portions of the Difference Engine, eventually he gave up. In 1854, he decided to build an Analytical Engine, which was also left unfinished. However, his proposals for mechanical computers predated the modern reinvention of computers by almost a century. Because of this accomplishment, Charles Babbage has earned his place in history as the "Father of Computing."  Generations of computing The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful, efficient and reliable devices.  Abacus (c. 2700 BC)  The binary abacus is used to explain how computers manipulate numbers. The abacus shows how numbers, letters, and signs can be stored in a binary system on a computer, or via ASCII. The device consists of a series of beads on parallel wires arranged in three separate rows. First Generation – Vacuum Tubes (1940 – 1956)  Evolution of Computer Generation The Generation of Computer Evolution is Generally Divided Into 5 Categories. The First Generation of Computers- (the 1940s-1950s) Vacuum tubes were the primary electronic component used in computers between the years of 1940 and 1950. Magnetic tapes and magnetic drums served as the primary memory storage devices. The programming language was the machine language. In the past, the sizes were enormous and could fill entire rooms, and the speed was incredibly sluggish. Paper tape and punched cards served as the only input and output mechanisms. The computers were built using over 100 different vacuum tubes. Examples include the UNIVAC1, ENIAC, IBM 701 and 650, among others.  Advantages of the First-Generation Computer When it came to calculation speed, these computers were quick. Millisecond calculations might be used. These computers employed vacuum tubes, which were the electronic components that were readily accessible at the time. Disadvantages of the First-Generation Computer These computers weighed around 30 tonnes and were incredibly large, taking up a lot of room. These expensive, vacuum tube-based computers were incredibly expensive. They were only able to hold a minimal quantity of information because of the magnetic drums. Vacuum tubes, which the earliest generation of computers used, require a huge cooling system. They were less effective in their jobs and used a lot of energy. They had limited programming capability and used punch cards for input. Second Generation – Transistors (1956 – 1963)  Second Generation – Transistors (1956 – 1963) The Second Generation of Computers- (the 1950s-1960s) Transistors were the primary electronic component used in computers from the 1950s through the 1960s. Magnetic tape or disc and magnetic core served as the primary memory storage devices. The programming language utilised was assembly language. Compared to the first generation, the sizes were smaller, and they used to use less electricity and produce less heat. The pace of things increased. Magnetic tape and punched cards served as the input and output components. IBM 1401, IBM 7094 AND IBM 7090, UNIVAC 110 7, and other systems are examples.  Advantages of the Second Generation of Computers Transistors, as opposed to vacuum tubes, were used to reduce the size of the electron component. As a result, such computers were smaller in size than those from the preceding generation. Due to the initial generation of computers, these computers used less energy and did not generate as much heat. Punch cards and Assembly language were both employed as input methods in these machines. It was more portable and affordable than the first generation. These computers were also speedier since they could compute data in microseconds. Disadvantages of the Second Generation of Computers It needed a cooling system and ongoing upkeep. Additionally, these computers were solely employed to do a certain task. Third Generation – Integrated Circuits (1964 – 1971)  The Third Generation of Computers- (the 1960s-1970s) Integrated circuits (ICs) were the primary electronic components used in computers from the 1960s through the 1970s. The magnetic disc or take and a large magnetic core served as the memory storage components. The programming language was a high-level language like BASIC, COBOL, or Pascal. Minicomputers were the name given to the more compact and effective computers. Compared to the second generation of computers, there was an advance in speed and dependability. Keyboards, a magnetic tape monitor, a printer, etc. were the input and output equipment. IBM 370, IBM 360, UNIVAC 1108, and more examples come to mind.  Advantages of the Third Generation of Computers These computers were less expensive than those of the second generation. The integrated circuits utilised by the computers of this generation reduced their size. Additionally, they were dependable and swifter. The adoption of an integrated circuit not only helped to make computers smaller, but it also improved their performance when compared to second-generation computers. Large storage capacities were introduced with the third generation of computers. Instead of punch cards, keyboard and mouse were utilised in these computers to input data. The calculating times on computers of this generation were substantially faster, going from microseconds to nanoseconds. These computers also utilised operating systems, various programming languages, and the time- sharing idea for improved performance. Disadvantages of the Third Generation of Computers These computers required air conditioning. IC chips are difficult to maintain and require highly advanced technology to manufacture. Fourth Generation – Microprocessors (1972 – 2010)  Fourth Generation – Microprocessors (1972 – 2010) The Fourth Generation of Computers- (1970s-present) The fourth generation of computers’ primary electronic components are microprocessors and extremely large scale integration (VLSI). VLSI is the term used to describe a single microchip that has thousands of transistors attached to it. The introduction of semiconductor memory storage devices like RAM and ROM. The contents of RAM (random-access memory), which is used to temporarily store applications and data, are erased when the computer is turned off. The contents of ROM (read-only memory), which permanently saves the data and applications, remain kept even after the computer has been turned down. Programming languages include high-level ones like C#, Java, Python, and JavaScript. Both the sizes and the pace have decreased. The input/output devices include a keyboard, mouse, printer, and monitor.  Advantages of the Fourth Generation of Computers The first benefit of the current generation of computers is that they are smaller and do computations more quickly than their predecessors. It requires little upkeep and produces very little heat. These computers allow for the usage of any high-level language. Disadvantages of the Fourth Generation of Computers The microprocessor is complex in both its construction and design. Air cooling is frequently required since integrated circuits are so common. Modern technology is necessary to create integrated circuits.  Fifth Generation – Artificial Intelligence (2010 Onwards)  Fifth Generation – Artificial Intelligence (2010 Onwards) The Fifth Generation of Computers- (present and the future) Artificial intelligence, which employs the parallel processing approach and ultra- large scale integration, is the primary electrical component utilised in the current generation of computers (ULSI). The fifth generation of computers is capable of understanding spoken language. Both the speeds and the sizes are really quick. The fifth generation of computers are mobile and provide a tonne of storage. Keyboards, displays, touchscreen pens, printers, light scanners, and other devices are examples of input/output devices. Tablets, cellphones, laptops, and desktop computers are among examples.  Advantages of the Fifth Generation of Computers It comes in different sizes and has distinctive characteristics. It is more dependable and capable of working considerably more quickly. It provides computers with multimedia functions and a friendlier user interface (UI). Disadvantages of the Fifth Generation of Computers Low-level languages are needed in these machines. They could damage human brains by rendering them boring and hopeless.  On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types: Analogue Computer Digital Computer Hybrid Computer Analog computer  1) Analogue Computer Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say that analogue computers are used where we don't need exact values always such as speed, temperature, pressure and current. Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and generally render output as a reading on a dial or scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue computers.  Advantages of using analogue computers: It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous representation of all data within the rage of the analogue machine. In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of transducers for converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice versa. The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue computer. It provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and their effects.  Types of analogue computers: Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue computers. It was developed to perform basic mathematical calculations. It is made of two rods. To perform the calculation, the hashed rod is slid to line up with the markings on another rod. Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential calculations. It performs integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to solve differential calculations.  Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming instructions. Its height was around 11 feet and it was provided with the display of time, the zodiac, and the solar and lunar orbits. This device also could allow users to set the length of the day as per the current season. Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer, electrical signals flow through capacitors and resistors to simulate physical phenomena. Here, the mechanical interaction of components does not take place. The voltage of the electrical signal generates the appropriate displays. Digital Computer  2) Digital Computer Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern computers like laptops, desktops including smart phones that we use at home or office are digital computers.  Advantages of digital computers: It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever you need it. You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily. Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program without making any changes in hardware The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology. It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally. It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes. Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise, temperature, humidity, and other properties of its components. Hybrid Computer  3) Hybrid Computer Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital form before processing. So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and digital data is processed. For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific applications.  Advantages of using hybrid computers: Its computing speed is very high due to the all- parallel configuration of the analogue subsystem. It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful. It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time. It helps in the on-line data processing. General Purpose Computer  Types of Computer-Based on Purpose a. General Purpose Computer b. Special Purpose Computer General Purpose Computer A general-purpose computer system is one that can be programmed to perform a wide range of functions. Users or devices can interact with general-purpose computers in a number of ways to suit a wide range of requirements. A general-purpose system’s capacity to run a variety of applications allows it to be highly adaptable in terms of the jobs it can complete. Software may be readily installed, updated, and removed, altering the system’s functioning.  Writing a word processing letter, document preparation, recording, financial analysis, printing papers, constructing databases, and computations are all activities that general computers can perform with precision and consistency. These computers are often smaller, have less storage space, and are less expensive. The capacity of these computers to execute specific tasks is restricted. Nonetheless, it is adaptable and effective for meeting people’s fundamental requirements at home or in the office. A general-purpose system often has a large number of inputs and outputs to which it may be attached. For example, having USB ports on a laptop allows other devices to alter the laptop’s capabilities and features. Because general-purpose systems are meant to handle a wide range of processes, they aren’t always entirely optimised for each activity. Optimization is crucial for some activities!  Computers in general are meant to do a variety of activities such as: – Document preparation Financial evaluation Document printing Input / Output functions at a basic level Database creation Smaller-scale data storage Consistent and accurate calculations. Performing arts in general Special Purpose Computer  Special purpose computer These computers are made to carry out a specific or specialised activity. The scope and scale of the job depends on the size, storage capacity, and cost of such computers. The purpose of these computers is to do a certain task. To function effectively, the unique computer requires certain input and output devices, as well as a motherboard that is compatible with the CPU. Weather prediction, planetary science, farming, engineering, meteorology, satellite operation, traffic control, and pharmaceutical science research all utilize these computers. These computers’ functions are consistent with any certain purpose, i.e., they are meant to do a specific or specialised activity.  Thermometers to evaluate temperature are one example of these sorts. Instruments for studying climate change Generators for power management Computers with a lot of memory for IT firms Special-purpose computers are only a few examples. Automated teller machines (ATMs)  Computerized traffic-control systems Surveillance apparatus Simulators for weather forecasting Laundry machines Computers controlled by military planes Applications for the defence sector Systems for oil exploration What are the limitations of a computer Computers are powerful machines that have revolutionized the way we live and work, but they also have limitations. Here are some of the major limitations of computers: 1.Lack of Creativity: Computers are unable to be creative in the same way that humans can be. They can perform tasks that are programmed into them, but they cannot think outside the box or come up with new ideas on their own. 2.Limited Memory: While computers have the ability to store vast amounts of data, they have a finite amount of memory. This means that they can only handle so much information at once, and they may struggle with complex tasks that require a lot of data processing.  3.Inability to Learn: While computers can be programmed to learn and adapt to new situations, they cannot learn in the same way that humans can. They do not have the ability to think critically or make decisions based on instinct or intuition. 4.Dependence on Power: Computers require a constant supply of electricity to function. This means that they cannot be used in areas where there is no power supply, such as in remote locations or during power outages.  5.Vulnerability to Viruses and Hacking: Computers are vulnerable to viruses and hacking attacks, which can compromise the security of sensitive information and cause serious damage to the system. 6.Lack of Emotional Intelligence: Computers are unable to understand human emotions or communicate on an emotional level. They can recognize certain emotions based on programmed responses, but they cannot truly empathize with human beings.  7.Environmental Impact: The production and disposal of computers have a significant environmental impact, including the use of non-renewable resources, the emission of greenhouse gases, and the creation of electronic waste. 8.Dependence on Software: Computers rely on software to perform tasks, which means that they are only as good as the software that is available to them. If there is no software available to perform a certain task, the computer cannot perform it