Introduction to Computer Science 2023-2024 PDF

1.1 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester By Dr Raja’a M. Mohammed 2023-2024 1 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage...

1.1 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester By Dr Raja’a M. Mohammed 2023-2024 1 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Delivery Plan (Weekly Syllabus) ‫المنهاج االسبوعي النظري‬ Week Material Covered Week 1 The concept of computer Week 2 The history of computer Week 3 Classifications of computer Week 4 Introduction to number system Week 5 Computer hardware Week 6 Computer software Week 7 Operating System Week 8 Mid exam Week 9 Computer language Week 10 Translator (assembler, interpreter, & compiler) Week 11 Flowchart and Algorithm Week 12 Computer networks & Internet Week 13 privacy and security Week 14 AI Week 15 Preparatory week before the final Exam 2 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Lecture one The Concept of Computer 1.2 Definition of Computer Computer A computer is basically defined as a tool or machine used for processing data to give required information. It is capable of: ✓ taking input data through the keyboard (input unit), ✓ storing the input data in a diskette, hard disk or other medium, ✓ processing it in the central processing unit (CPU) and ✓ giving out the result (output) on the screen or the Visual Display Unit (VDU). INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT Fig. 1: A schematic diagram to define a computer Data: The term data refers to facts about a person, object or place, e.g., name, age, complexion, school, class, height etc. Information: This is referred to as processed data or a meaningful statement, e.g. net pay of workers, examination results of students, list of successful candidates in an examination or interview etc. 1.3 Methods of Data Processing The following are the three major methods that have been widely used for data processing over the years: ✓ The Manual method ✓ The Mechanical method ✓ The computer method. 1.3.1 The Manual Method This data processing method is handled manually. The entire process of data collection, filtering, sorting, calculation, and other logical operations are all done with human intervention and without the use of any other electronic device or automation software. It is a low-cost method and requires little to 3 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester no tools, but produces high errors, high labor costs, and lots of time and tedium. 1.3.2 The Mechanical Method Data is processed mechanically through the use of devices and machines. These can include simple devices such as calculators, typewriters, printing press, etc. Simple data processing operations can be achieved with this method. It has much lesser errors than manual data processing, but the increase of data has made this method more complex and difficult. 1.3.3 The Computer Method Data is processed with modern technologies using data processing software and programs. A set of instructions is given to the software to process the data and yield output. This method is the most expensive but provides the fastest processing speeds with the highest reliability and accuracy of output. 1.4 Characteristics of a Computer 1. Speed: The computer can manipulate large data at incredible speed and response time can be very fast. 2. Accuracy: Its accuracy is very high and its consistency can be relied upon. Errors committed in computing are mostly due to human rather than technological weakness. There are in-built error detecting schemes in the computer. 3. Storage: It has both internal and external storage facilities for holding data and instructions. This capacity varies from one machine to the other. Memories are built up in K (Kilo) modules where K=1024 memory locations. 4. Reliability: Being a machine, a computer does not suffer human traits of tiredness and lack of concentration. It will perform the last job with the same speed and accuracy as the first job every time even if ten million jobs are involved. 4 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 5. Flexibility: It can perform any type of task once it can be reduced to logical steps. Modern computers can be used to perform a variety of functions like on-line processing, multiprogramming, real time processing etc. 1.5 The Computing System The computing system is made up of the computer system, the user and the environment in which the computer is operated. 1.5.1 The Computer System The computer system is made up of the hardware and the software. 1.5.1.1 The Hardware The computer hardware comprises the input unit, the processing unit and the output unit. 1. The input unit comprises those media through which data is fed into the computer. Examples include the keyboard, mouse, joystick, trackball and scanner. 2. The processing unit is made up of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), the control unit and the main memory. The main memory also known as the primary memory is made up of the Read Only Memory (ROM) and the Random Access Memory (RAM). 3. The output unit is made up of those media through which data, instructions for processing the data (program), and the result of the processing operation are displayed for the user to see. Examples of the output unit are the monitor (Visual Display Unit) and the printer. 1.5.1.2 Software Computer software is the series of instructions that enable the computer to perform a task or group of tasks. A program is made up of a group of instructions to perform a task. Series of programs linked together make up software. Computer programs could be categorized into system software, utility software, and application programs. 5 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.5.2 Computer Users Computer users are the different categories of personnel that operate the computer. We have expert users and casual users. The expert users could be further categorized into computer engineers, computer programmers and computer operators. 1.5.3 The Computing Environment The computing environment includes the building housing the other elements of the computing system namely the computer and the users, the furniture, auxiliary devices such as the voltage stabilizer, the Uninterruptible Power Supply System (UPS), the fans, the air conditioners etc. computer system computing hardware software users enviroment Fig 2a: A Schematic diagram of the computing system Lecture two The history of computer 6 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.6 The history of computer The computer as we know it today has evolved over the ages. An attempt is made in this unit to present in chronological order the various landmarks and milestones in the development of the computer. Based on the milestone achievement of each era, the computer evolution is categorized into generations. 1.7 First Generation Computers In the period of the year 1940-1956, it was referred to as the period of the first generation of computers. These machines are slow, huge, and expensive. In this generation of computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory. Also, they were mainly dependent on the batch operating systems and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices. For example, ENIAC, UNIVAC- 1, EDVAC, etc. and used the machine code (binary). 1.7.1 Second Generation Computers In the period of the year, 1957-1963 was referred to as the period of the second generation of computers. It was the time of the transistor computers. In the second generation of computers, transistors (which were cheap in cost) are used. Transistors are also compact and consume less power. Transistor 7 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester computers are faster than first-generation computers. For primary memory, magnetic cores were used, and for secondary memory magnetic disc and tapes for storage purposes. In this generation, the concept of the Central Processing Unit, the batch system, programming languages, temporary memories, and input and output units (I/O devices) such as magnetic disks were developed. And printing machines. In second-generation computers, COBOL and FORTRAN are used as Assembly language and programming languages, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems were used in these computers. For example, IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, etc. 1.7.2 Third Generation Computers These computers appeared in the years 1965-1971 and were a major qualitative shift in the world of computers because they became cheaper, smaller in size, and simple to handle, which made them used in most fields, such as control systems, automation of scientific experiments, manufacturing televisions, radios, and other similar devices. One of the most important 8 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester features of this generation is the ability to share data among themselves through computer networks, or what is known as the Internet. In the third generation of computers, integrated circuits (ICs) were used instead of transistors (in the second generation). A single IC consists of many transistors which increased the power of a computer and also reduced the cost. The third-generation computers are more reliable, and efficient. It used remote processing, time-sharing, and multiprogramming as operating systems. FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, and PASCAL PL/1 were used which are high-level programming languages. For example, IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series, IBM-370/168, etc. 1.7.3 Fourth Generation Computers These computers appeared in the years 1971-1980 and were the first from Germany to be used for personal use. They were characterized by an easy- to-use graphical interface that could be handled with a mouse. They were also luxurious and could be kept on a table or desk, and computer users began to communicate. With members through the Internet. In this period of startups, leading companies based on microprocessors (microprocessors) such as Intel and AMD, as well as Microsoft, which created the Windows operating system, and Apple, which created the Macintosh operating system, operate. 9 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester The period of 1971-1980 was mainly the time of fourth generation computers. It used VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrated) circuits. VLSI is a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements and because of these chips, the computers of this generation are more compact, powerful, fast, and affordable (low in cost). Real-time, time-sharing and distributed operating system are used by these computers. C and C++ are used as the programming languages in this generation of computers. For example STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP, etc. 1.7.4 Fifth Generation Computers Fifth generation computers began in 1980 and continue to this day. In this generation, computers have become very durable, extremely fast, their storage capacity is very large, and they are available in different shapes and sizes to suit the needs of all users. In addition, portable computers have been invented that can work for a few hours without electricity. The fifth generation is turning to the use of artificial intelligence in computer programs such as games, programs for processing and analyzing images, videos, and audio, language teaching programs, programs for 10 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester correcting spelling errors, and even in websites such as the Google search engine and others. In this generation, most machines have miniature computer components inside them and rely on artificial intelligence to make decisions. We now see robots, cars, and planes able to move and act on their own without human intervention. Navigation systems that direct car drivers to shortcut routes also rely on artificial intelligence. The ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale Integration) technology is used in fifth-generation computers instead of the VLSI technology of fourth-generation computers. Microprocessor chips with ten million electronic components are used in these computers. Parallel processing hardware used in fifth-generation computers. The programming languages like C, C++, Java,.Net, etc. are used. 11 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Lecture three Classifications of computer 1.8 Introduction Although there are no industry standards to classify computers, computers are generally classified in the following ways: 1.9 Classification Based on Signal Type There are basically three types of electronic computers. These are the Digital, Analog and Hybrid computers. 1.9.1 The Digital Computer The digital computer is outlined to execute calculations and logical operations at a high pace. Such computers are proficient in solving problems in discrete formats. It acquires the raw data as input is in the form of digits/binary numbers (i.e 0 and 1) and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the output. It can implement arithmetic operations such as addition, occurrence, subtraction, multiplication and division, and all sorts of logical/mathematical operations as well. All modern computers like laptops, desktops including smartphones, calculators, tablets, digital watches, accounting machines, workstations, digital clocks etc that we use at home or office are digital computers 1.9.2 The Analog Computer Analog computers are outlined to process analog data. Analog data is continuous data that varies continuously and cannot have discrete values. Analog computers are utilized primarily to measure physical units like the voltage, electric current, pressure, temperature and convert them into digits. Such computers are mostly used for scientific, technology, research, engineering, and industrial applications. 12 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Speedometer, mercury thermometer, thermometer, operational amplifiers, electric integrators, etc. are examples of analog computers. 1.9.3 The Hybrid Computer Hybrid computers as the name signify exhibit features of both Analog and Digital computers. It is fast like an analog computer and has memory and accuracy like those of digital computers. It can process both continuous and discrete data. It takes analog signals and transforms them into digital form before processing them. 1.10 Classification by Purpose Depending on their flexibility in operation, computers are classified as either special purpose or general purpose. 1.10.1 Special-Purpose Computers A special purpose computer is one that is designed to solve a restricted class of problems. Such computers may even be designed and built to handle only one job. In such machines, the steps or operations that the computer follows may be built into the hardware. Most of the computers used for military purposes fall into this class. Other examples of special purpose computers include: 1. Computers designed specifically to solve navigational problems. 2. Computers designed for tracking airplanes or missiles 3. Computers used for process control applications in industries such as oil refinery, chemical manufacture, steel processing and power generation 4. Computers used as robots in factories like vehicle assembly plants and glass industries. 13 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.10.2 General-Purpose Computers General-purpose computers are computers designed to handle a wide range of problems. Theoretically, a general-purpose computer can be adequate by means of some easily alterable instructions to handle any problems that can be solved by computation. In practice, however, there are limitations imposed by memory size, speed and the type of input/output devices. 1.11 Classification of Computers According to Capacity In the past, the capacity of computers was measured in terms of physical size. Today, however, physical size is not a good measure of capacity because modern technology has made it possible to achieve compactness. A better measure of capacity today is the volume of work that a computer can handle. The volume of work that a given computer handles is closely tied to the cost and to the memory size of the computer. Therefore, most authorities today accept rental price as the standard for ranking computers. Here, both memory size and cost shall be used to rank (classify) computers into three main categories as follows: 1. Microcomputers 2. Medium/mini/small computers 3. Large computer/mainframes. 1.11.1 Supercomputer When we talk about speed, then the first name that comes to mind when thinking of computers is supercomputers. They are the biggest and fastest computers (in terms of speed of processing data). Supercomputers are designed such that they can process a huge amount of data, like processing 14 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester trillions of instructions or data just in a second. This is because of the thousands of interconnected processors in supercomputers. It is basically used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather forecasting, scientific simulations, and nuclear energy research. It was first developed by Roger Cray in 1976. 1.11.2 Mainframe computer Mainframe computers are designed in such a way that they can support hundreds or thousands of users at the same time. It also supports multiple programs simultaneously. So, they can execute different processes simultaneously. All these features make the mainframe computer ideal for big organizations like banking, telecom sectors, etc., which process a high volume of data in general. 1.11.3 Micro Computer The microcomputer is also recognized as a personal computer, these are comparatively economical. Microcomputers are small computers incorporating a microprocessor, Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, storage area, an input unit, and an output unit. It is a general-purpose computer that is outlined for personal use. Such computers are made with minimum circuitry mounting over a single circuit board. They are fit for personal work that may be making an assignment, at the office for office work, watching a movie, etc. Examples include Desktop, Laptop, tablets, smartphones, etc. 1.11.4 Workstation Computer A workstation computer is designed for technical or scientific applications. It consists of a fast microprocessor, with a large amount of 15 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester RAM and a high-speed graphic adapter. It is a single-user computer. It is generally used to perform a specific task with great accuracy. 1.11.5 Mini Computers Mid-sized computers that are more powerful than microcomputers but less powerful than mainframes. 16 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Lecture four Introduction to number system 1.12 Introduction A number system denotes how we use numbers everywhere and make use of them. A number system denotes which number sits where and what value it possesses. Understanding the number system helps to understand what bases do the number hold in a figure. A number base is a key factor in understating the system. number base tells us how many numbers are there while using a type of particular numbering system. For instance, decimal means base 10 whereas binary stands for base two. The decimal system denotes using from 0 to 9 digits, and binary uses 0 and 1. 1.12.1 Types of number systems – As mentioned earlier, the number system represents the positions of different numbers in a figure. The value of a particular number can be understood by the position it holds according to the numbering system. The numbers and their positions help us to do the basic maths such as addition, The four types of number systems are – 1. Binary number systems 2. Octal number systems 3. Decimal number systems 4. Hexadecimal number systems Binary system denotes base 2, octal number system denotes base 8, decimal denotes base 10, and finally hexadecimal means base 16. 17 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.12.1.1 Decimal Number System Number system with base value 10 is termed as Decimal number system. It uses 10 digits i.e. 0-9 for the creation of numbers. Here, each digit in the number is at a specific place with place value a product of different powers of 10. Here, the place value is termed from right to left as first place value called units, second to the left as Tens, so on Hundreds, Thousands, etc. Here, units has the place value as 100, tens has the place value as 101, hundreds as 102, thousands as 103, and so on. 1.12.1.2 Binary Number System Number System with base value 2 is termed as Binary number system. It uses 2 digits i.e. 0 and 1 for the creation of numbers. The numbers formed using these two digits are termed as Binary Numbers. Binary number system is very useful in electronic devices and computer systems because it can be easily performed using just two states ON and OFF i.e. 0 and 1. 1.12.1.3 Octal Number System Octal Number System is one in which the base value is 8. It uses 8 digits i.e. 0-7 for creation of Octal Numbers. Octal Numbers can be converted to 18 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Decimal value by multiplying each digit with the place value and then adding the result. Here the place values are 8^0, 8^1, and 8^2. Octal Numbers are useful for the representation of UTF8 Numbers. 1.12.1.4 Hexadecimal Number System Number System with base value 16 is termed as Hexadecimal Number System. It uses 16 digits for the creation of its numbers. Digits from 0-9 are taken like the digits in the decimal number system but the digits from 10-15 are represented as A-F i.e. 10 is represented as A, 11 as B, 12 as C, 13 as D, 14 as E, and 15 as F. Hexadecimal Numbers are useful for handling memory address locations. Lecture five Computer hardware 1.13 Introduction 19 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as a case, central processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), monitor, and mouse which processes the input according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output. The computer has mainly two major components: 1. Hardware 2. Software 1.14 Computer hardware Your personal computer (PC) is really a collection of separate items working together as a team, with you as the captain. Some of these components are essential; others simply make working more pleasant or efficient. Adding extra items expands the variety of tasks you can accomplish with your machine. Computer hardware is a physical device of computers that we can see and touch. For e.g. Monitor, Central Processing Unit, Mouse, Joystick, etc. Using these devices, we can control computer operations like input and output. 1.15 Computer Hardware Parts These hardware components are further divided into the following categories, which are: 1. Input Devices 2. Output Devices 3. Storage Devices 4. Internal Components 1.15.1 Input Devices Input devices are those devices with the help of which the user interacts with the computer. Or, In other words, with the help of input devices, the 20 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester user enters the data or information into the computer. This information or data is accepted by the input devices and converted into a computer- acceptable format, which is further sent to the computer system for processing. Now we discuss some input devices: 1. Keyboard: It is the most common and main input device for computers. The data is inputted by typing on the keyboard. It consists of 104 keys in total. It contains numeric keys, alphabet keys, and different function keys as well. Earlier, it was connected to the computer via cable, now as technology has advanced, you can connect a keyboard using Bluetooth. 2. Mouse: A mouse is a kind of pointing device which is rolled over to control the cursor on the screen and it has functional keys like left, middle, and right buttons. Using these functional keys, on by the click of which an object is selected or to open a file by just a click of a mouse. It also consists of a sensor inside which notifies its speed to the computer and according to which the cursor is moved on the screen. 3. Scanner: As the name suggests, it scans images, documents, etc., and converts them into digital form and that can be further edited and used. 4. Track Ball: It is a device much like an upside-down mouse. It does not use much space for movement like a mouse. As the trackball remains stationary and the user moves the ball in various directions, it affects the screen movements directly. 21 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 5. Light Pen: It is a light-sensitive device and it is touched to the CRT screen where it can detect, a raster on the screen as it passes by and, with the help of this user can draw anything like lines, figures, or any objects. 6. Microphone: It is a kind of voice input system that can be attached to a computer system to record sounds. It converts human speech or voice into electrical signals. This electrical signal is processed by the computer and the word is recognized. 7. Optical Character Reader: It is used to detect alphanumeric characters that are written or printed on paper using a low- frequency light source. This light is absorbed by the dark areas and reflected by the light areas, now this reflected light is received by the photocells. It is like a scanner. 8. Bar Code Reader: It is used to read bar codes and convert them into electric pulse which will further processed by the computer. Here, the barcode is data that is coded into white and black lines(or light and dark lines). 1.15.2 Output Devices These are the devices that are used to display the output of any task given to the computer in human-readable form. Now we discuss some output devices: 1. Monitor: The monitor is the main output device. It is also called VDU(visual display unit) and it looks like a TV screen. The Monitor displays the information from the computer. It is used to display text, video, images, etc. 2. Printer: A printer is an output device that transfers data from the computer in a printed format by using text or images on paper. There 22 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester are both colored and black & white printers. Further, there are also different types of printers, like Laser Printer, Dot-matrix printers, and Inkjet printers. 3. Plotter: It is similar to a printer but potters are large in size. A plotter is used to generate large drawings, architectural blueprints, etc. on paper and these are high-quality images and drawings and large in size. 4. Speakers: It is a very common output device and it gives sound as an output. Speaker is generally used to play music or anything having sound. 1.15.3 Storage Devices There are some devices that are used for storage purposes and are known as secondary storage devices. Some of them were discussed below: 1. CD (Compact disc): A CD is circular in shape and made up of thin platted glass and plastic polycarbonate material. It has a storage capacity of 600 MB to 700 MB of data. It has a standard size of 12 cm with a hole in the center of about 1.5 cm and 1.2 mm in thickness. There are basically 3 types of CDs, which are: 1. CD-ROM (CD – Read Only Memory): Contents of this type of CD cannot be erased by the user. Only the publisher is allowed to access the data imprinted on this CD. CD-ROM is basically used for commercial purposes like for a music album or any application package by a software company. 2. CD-R (CD-Recordable): In this, content or data can be stored once. After that, they can be read many times but the data or content cannot be rewritten or erased. (Kind of one-time use) 23 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 3. CD-RW(CD-Rewritable): As the name suggests, this type of CD is used to rewrite the content or erase previous content and again write new content many times. 1. DVD (Digital Video/Versatile Disc): A DVD is the same as a CD but with some more features. A DVD comes in single and dual-layer formats. It has much greater storage capacity in comparison to CD. The storage capacity of a DVD with one-sided single layer is – 4.7 GB, one-sided double layer – 8.5 GB, double-sided single layer – 9.4 GB, and double- sided double layer – 17 GB. There are also some types in DVDs, which are: DVD-ROM: In this type, the contents of the DVD cannot be written on or erased by the user. DVD ROM is used for applications and database for distributing them in large amounts. DVD-R / DVD+R: DVD-R (DVD minus R) and DVD+R (DVD plus R) are two different kinds of discs and they are once recordable format. Also, they have no difference virtually. DVD-RW / DVD+RW: This is a kind of rewritable disc and it allows up to 1,000 rewrites. DVD-RAM: DVD RAM is accessed like a hard disk. It provides high data security and storage capacity. This is a kind of rewritable disc and it allows up to 1,00,000 rewrites. 2. Hard Disk: an hard disk is a non-volatile storage device that uses its read/write heads to store digital data on a magnetic surface of a rigid plate. It is generally 3.5 inches in size for desktops and 2.5 inches in size for laptops. A hard disk can be classified further into 3 types, which are: Internal Hard Disk: It has a common storage capacity stated as GB or TB. A system case or cabinet is the place where it is located. It can 24 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester perform faster operations and its storage is fixed. It is mainly used to store large data files and programs. Internal Cartridges: The Internal hard disk can’t be removed from the system cabinet easily. To resolve this problem Internal Cartridges are introduced. So, Internal cartridges are easy to remove CDs. It has a storage capacity of 2 GB to 160 GB. It is used as an alternative to an internal hard disk. Hard Disk Packs: It is used by organizations such as banks, and government sector organizations to store large amounts of data. It has a storage capacity of a range of PB (Peta Bytes). 1.15.4 internal components some important hardware devices known as the internal components are discussed below: ▪ CPU (Central Processing Unit) The CPU is also known as the heart of the computer. It consists of three units, generally known as the control unit, Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU), and the memory unit. Below is the block diagram of the CPU is given: 25 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester As shown in the diagram input is given to the CPU through input devices. This input goes to memory and the control unit gets instructions from memory. The control unit now decides what to do with the input or instructions and transfers it to ALU. Now, ALU performs various operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logical operations, etc. After that, the final result gets stored in memory and finally passed to output devices to give the output. So, this is how the CPU works. ▪ Motherboard It is the main circuit board inside a computer and it contains most of the electronic components together. All the components of the computer are directly or indirectly connected to the motherboard. It includes RAM slots, controllers, system chipsets, etc. ▪ RAM (Random Access Memory) It is also known as temporary memory. It holds the program and data, which are currently in process or processing. All the data is erased as soon as the computer is turned off or in case of a power failure. Data stored in this memory can be changed. There are two types of RAM:- SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM basically consists of a flip-flop using a transistor or Mosfet (MOS). It is fast and has less access time. In this refreshing circuits are not required. But it is costly and requires more space. For e.g. cache memory. DRAM (Dynamic RAM): DRAM consists of capacitors and the data is stored in the form of capacitors. Capacitors charge when data is 1 and don’t charge if data is 0. It requires refreshing circuits, as leakage of current in the capacitor can occur, so they need to be refreshed to the data. It is slower and has a higher access time. It is cheaper in comparison with SRAM. For e.g. Main memory. 26 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Power Supply All of a computer system’s parts are powered by a power source. Typically, a power cord is used to connect a computer to an electrical outlet Cooling Fan A computer’s system to prevent overheating uses cooling fans. To aid customers who use their computers intensively, such as when streaming video or playing games, many computers contain more than one cooling fan Lecture Six the Software 1.16 The Computer Software In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tell a computer what to do. In other words, the software is a computer program that provides a set of instructions to execute a user’s commands and tell the computer what to do. For example like MS- Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc. 1.17 Types of Software 27 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester It is a collection of data that is given to the computer to complete a particular task. The chart below describes the types of software: Above is the diagram of types of software. Now we will briefly describe each type and its subtypes: System Software 1. Operating System 2. Language Processor 3. Device Driver Application Software 1. General Purpose Software 2. Customize Software 3. Utility Software 1.17.1 System Software System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and provides the basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to operate smoothly. Or in other words, system software basically controls a computer’s internal functioning and also controls hardware devices such as monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc. It is like an interface between hardware and user applications, it helps them to communicate with each other because hardware understands machine 28 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester language (i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications are work in human-readable languages like English, Hindi, German, etc. so system software converts the human-readable language into machine language and vice versa. 1.17.2 Types of System Software It has two subtypes which are: 1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer system ON it is the first software that loads into the computer’s memory. Basically, it manages all the resources such as computer memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an interface to the user, which helps the user to interact with the computer system. Examples of operating systems are Linux, Apple Macintosh OS, Microsoft Windows, etc. 2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-readable language into a machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the language processor. It converts programs written in high-level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc(known as source code), into sets of instructions that are easily readable by machines(known as object code or machine code). 3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and helps that device to perform its functions. Every device like a printer, mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to connect with the computer system eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your computer system, first you need to install the driver of that device so that your operating system knows how to control or manage that device. 29 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.17.3 Application Software Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more than the basic operation of the computer is known as application software. Or in other words, application software is designed to perform a specific task for end-users. It is a product or a program that is designed only to fulfill end-users’ requirements. It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management, inventory, payroll programs, etc. 1.17.4 Types of Application Software There are different types of application software and those are: 1. General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a variety of tasks and it is not limited to performing a specific task only. For example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc. 2. Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed to perform specific tasks or functions or designed for specific organizations. For example, railway reservation system, airline reservation system, invoice management system, etc. 3. Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the computer infrastructure. It is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and maintains the system, and take care of its requirements as well. For example, antivirus, disk fragmented, memory tester, disk repair, disk cleaners, registry cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc. 1.17.5 Difference Between System Software and Application Software Now, let us discuss some difference between system software and application software: 30 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Lecture seven Operating System 1.18 Introduction An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between a user of a computer and the computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user may execute programs. Systems programs are programs written for direct execution on computer hardware in order to make the power of the computer fully and efficiently accessible to applications programmers and other computer users.In a computer system the hardware provides the basic computing resources. The 31 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester applications programs define the way in which these resources are used to solve the computing problems of the user. The operating system controls and coordinates the use of the hardware among the various systems programs and application programs for the various users. We can view an operating system as a resource allocator. A computer system has many resources (hardware and software) that may be required to solve a problem: CPU time, memory space, file storage space, input/output devices, etc. A computer’s operating system (OS) is a group of programs designed to serve two basic purposes: 1. To control the allocation and use of the computing system’s resources among the various users and tasks. 2. To provide an interface between the computer hardware and the programmer that simplifies and makes feasible the creation, coding, debugging, and maintenance of application programs. 1.19 Types of Operating Systems Modern computer operating systems may be classified into three groups, which are distinguished by the nature of interaction that takes place between the computer user and his or her program during its process in: 1. Batch Operating System 2. Multi-Programming System 3. Multi-Processing System 4. Time-Sharing Operating System 5. Distributed Operating System 6. Network Operating System 32 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.19.1 Batch Operating System This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirement and groups them into batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs. Batch Operating System 1.19.2 Multi-Programming Operating System Multiprogramming Operating Systems can be simply illustrated as more than one program is present in the main memory and any one of them can be kept in execution. This is basically used for better execution of resources. 1.19.3 Multi-Processing Operating System Multi-Processing Operating System is a type of Operating System in which more than one CPU is used for the execution of resources. It betters the throughput of the System. 33 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.19.4 Time-Sharing Operating Systems Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets the time of the CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user or different users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is over OS switches over to the next task. 1.19.5 Distributed Operating System Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each other using a shared communication network. Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These are referred to as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. These systems’ processors differ in size and function. The major benefit of working with these types of the operating system is that it is always possible that one user can access the files or software which are not actually present on his system but some other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is enabled within the devices connected in that network. 34 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.19.6 Network Operating System These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. These types of operating systems allow shared access to files, printers, security, applications, and other networking functions over a small private network. One more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well aware of the underlying configuration, of all other users within the network, their individual connections, etc. and that’s why these computers are popularly known as tightly coupled systems. Lecture eight Computer language 1.20 Introduction to computer languages Basically, human beings cannot speak or write in computer language, and since computers cannot speak or write in human language, an 35 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester intermediate language had to be devised to allow people to communicate with the computers. These intermediate languages, known as programming languages, allow a computer programmer to direct the activities of the computer. The rules of a particular language tell the programmer how the individual instructions must be structured and what sequence of words and symbols must be used to form an instruction. 1. An operation codes 2. Some operands. The operation code tells the computer what to do such as add, subtract, multiply and divide. The operands tell the computer the data items involved in the operations. 1.21 Types of Programming Language The effective utilization and control of a computer system is primarily through the software of the system. We note that there are different types of software that can be used to direct the computer system. System software directs the internal operations of the computer, and applications software allows the programmer to use the computer to solve user made problems. Computer programming languages can be classified into the following categories: 36 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1. Low level language (Machine language) 2. Middle level language (Assembly language) 3. High level language. 1.21.1 Machine Language (low level language) Low-Level language is the only language which can be understood by the computer. Low-level language is also known as Machine Language. The machine language contains only two symbols 1 & 0. All the instructions of machine language are written in the form of binary numbers 1's & 0's. A computer can directly understand the machine language. 1.21.2 Assembly Language (middle level language) Middle-level language is a computer language in which the instructions are created using symbols such as letters, digits and special characters. Assembly language is an example of middle-level language. In assembly language, we use predefined words called mnemonics. Binary code instructions in low-level language are replaced with mnemonics and operands in middle-level language. But the computer cannot understand mnemonics, so we use a translator called Assembler to translate mnemonics into machine language. Assembler is a translator which takes assembly code as input and produces machine code as output. That means, the computer cannot understand middle-level language, so it needs to be translated into a low- level language to make it understandable by the computer. Assembler is used to translate middle-level language into low-level language. 37 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.21.3 High Level Language High-level language is a computer language which can be understood by the users. The high-level language is very similar to human languages and has a set of grammar rules that are used to make instructions more easily. Every high-level language has a set of predefined words known as Keywords and a set of rules known as Syntax to create instructions. The high-level language is easier to understand for the users but the computer can not understand it. High-level language needs to be converted into the low-level language to make it understandable by the computer. We use Compiler or interpreter to convert high-level language to low-level language. Languages like C++, Python, and Java are examples of high-level languages. All these programming languages use human-understandable language like English to write program instructions. These instructions are converted to low-level language by the compiler or interpreter so that it can be understood by the computer. Lecture Nine: Translator (Assembler, Interpreter, & Compiler) 1.22 Language Processors: Assembler, Compiler and Interpreter Computer programs are generally written in high-level languages (like C++, Python, and Java). A language processor, or language translator, is a computer program that convert source code from one programming language 38 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester to another language or human readable language. They also find errors during translation. 1.23 What is Language Processors? Compilers, interpreters, translate programs written in high-level languages into machine code that a computer understands and assemblers translate programs written in low-level or assembly language into machine code. In the compilation process, there are several stages. To help programmers write error-free code, tools are available. Assembly language is machine-dependent, yet mnemonics used to represent instructions in it are not directly understandable by machine and high-Level language is machine-independent. A computer understands instructions in machine code, i.e. in the form of 0s and 1s. It is a tedious task to write a computer program directly in machine code. The programs are written mostly in high-level languages like Java, C++, Python etc. and are called source code. These source code cannot be executed directly by the computer and must be converted into machine language to be executed. Hence, a special translator system software is used to translate the program written in a high-level language into machine code is called Language Processor and the program after translated into machine code (object program/object code). 1.24 Types of Language Processors The language processors can be any of the following three types: 1.24.1 1. Compiler The language processor that reads the complete source program written in high-level language as a whole in one go and translates it into an equivalent program in machine language is called a Compiler. Example: C, C++, C#. 39 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester In a compiler, the source code is translated to object code successfully if it is free of errors. The compiler specifies the errors at the end of the compilation with line numbers when there are any errors in the source code. The errors must be removed before the compiler can successfully recompile the source code again the object program can be executed number of times without translating it again. 1.24.2 Assembler The Assembler is used to translate the program written in Assembly language into machine code. The source program is an input of an assembler that contains assembly language instructions. The output generated by the assembler is the object code or machine code understandable by the computer. Assembler is basically the 1st interface that is able to communicate humans with the machine. We need an assembler to fill the gap between human and machine so that they can communicate with each other. code written in assembly language is some sort of mnemonics(instructions) like ADD, MUL, MUX, SUB, DIV, MOV and so on. and the assembler is basically able to convert these mnemonics in binary code. Here, these mnemonics also depend upon the architecture of the machine. For example, the architecture of intel 8085 and intel 8086 are different. 40 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.24.3 3. Interpreter The translation of a single statement of the source program into machine code is done by a language processor and executes immediately before moving on to the next line is called an interpreter. If there is an error in the statement, the interpreter terminates its translating process at that statement and displays an error message. The interpreter moves on to the next line for execution only after the removal of the error. An Interpreter directly executes instructions written in a programming or scripting language without previously converting them to an object code or machine code. An interpreter translates one line at a time and then executes it. Lecture 10 FLOWCHARTS AND ALGORITHMS 1.25 Flowcharts A flowchart is a graphical representation of the major steps of work in process. It displays in separate boxes the essential steps of the program and shows by means of arrows the directions of information flow. The boxes, 41 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester most often referred to as illustrative symbols, may represent documents, machines or actions taken during the process. The area of concentration is on where or who does what, rather than on how it is done. A flowchart can also be said to be a graphical representation of an algorithm, that is, it is a visual picture which gives the steps of an algorithm and also the flow of control between the various steps. 1.26 Flowchart symbols Different types of boxes are used to make flowcharts flowchart Symbols. Terminal Box - Start / End Input / Output Process / Instruction Decision Connector / Arrow 1.27 Algorithms Before a computer can be put to any meaningful use, the user must be able to come out with or define a unit sequence of operations or activities (logically ordered) which gives an unambiguous method of solving a problem or finding out that no solution exists. Such a set of operations is known as an ALGORITHM. Definition: An algorithm, named after the ninth century scholar Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Musu Al-Khowarizmi, is defined as follows: 42 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1. An algorithm is a set of rules for carrying out calculations either by hand or a machine. 2. An algorithm is a finite step-by-step procedure to achieve a required result. 3. An algorithm is a sequence of computational steps that transform the input into the output. 4. An algorithm is a sequence of operations performed on data that have to be organised in data structures. 5. An algorithm is an abstraction of a program to be executed on a physical machine (model of computation). In basic terms, an algorithm is a set of well-defined steps or rules that you need to follow to obtain a pre-determined result. For instance, when we talk about algorithms in computer programming, we already have our input and we know the expected output. Now, an algorithm would be all the defined steps to follow on the input to get the desired output. 1.28 Difference between Algorithm and Flowchart If you compare a flowchart to a movie, then an algorithm is the story of that movie. In other words, an algorithm is the core of a flowchart. Actually, in the field of computer programming, there are many differences between algorithm and flowchart regarding various aspects, such as the accuracy, the way they display, and the way people feel about them. Below is a table illustrating the differences between them in detail. Algorithm Flowchart It is a procedure for solving problems. It is a graphic representation of a process. The process is shown in step-by-step The process is shown in block-by-block instruction. information diagram. It is complex and difficult to understand. It is intuitive and easy to understand. 43 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester It is convenient to debug errors. It is hard to debug errors. The solution is showcased in natural The solution is showcased in pictorial language. format. It is easier to solve complex problem. It is hard to solve complex problem. It costs more time to create an algorithm. It costs less time to create a flowchart. Example 1: Print 1 to 20: Algorithm: ▪ Step 1: Initialize X as 0 ▪ Step 2: Increment X by 1 ▪ Step 3: Print X ▪ Step 4: If X is less than 20 then go back to step 2. Convert Temperature from Fahrenheit (℉) to Celsius (℃) Algorithm: ▪ Step 1: Read temperature in Fahrenheit, ▪ Step 2: Calculate temperature with formula C=5/9*(F-32), ▪ Step 3: Print C. 44 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Lecture 11 Computer Networking& Internet 1.29 Introduction A computer network is a group of two or more interconnected computer systems. You can establish a network connection using either cable or wireless media. Computer Networking is the practice of connecting 45 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester computers together to enable communication and data exchange between them. Every network involves hardware and software that connects computers and tools. 1.30 How Does a Computer Network Work? Basics building blocks of a computer network are Nodes and Links. A Network Node can be illustrated as Equipment for Data Communication like a Modem, Router, etc., or Equipment of a Data Terminal like connecting two computers or more. Link in Computer Networks can be defined as wires or cables or free space of wireless networks. The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as rules or protocols which help in sending and receiving data via the links which allow Computer networks to communicate. Each device has an IP Address, that helps in identifying a device. 1.31 Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks 46 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected together to enable communication and data exchange. Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can include computers, Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and other devices. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is transmitted over a network. Examples of protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP. Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes on a network. The common network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree. Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to take Network Capacity and Functionality on lease from the Provider. Service Provider Networks include Wireless Communications, Data Carriers, etc. IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every device on a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices and enable communication between them. DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to translate human-readable domain names (such as www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can understand. Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect networks from unauthorized access and other security threats. 47 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model which allows you to specify standards for communications. 1.32 Types of Enterprise Computer Networks 1. LAN: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that covers a small area, such as an office or a home. LANs are typically used to connect computers and other devices within a building or a campus. 2. WAN: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic area, such as a city, country, or even the entire world. WANs are used to connect LANs together and are typically used for long-distance communication. 1.33 Types of Computer Network Architecture Computer Network falls under these broad Categories: 1. Client-Server Architecture: Client-Server Architecture is a type of Computer Network Architecture in which Nodes can be Servers or Clients. Here, the server node can manage the Client Node Behavior. 2. Peer-to-Peer Architecture: In P2P (Peer-to-Peer) Architecture, there is not any concept of a Central Server. Each device is free for working as either client or server. 1.34 Unique Identifiers of Network Below given are some unique network identifiers: 48 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1. Hostname Every device of the network is associated with a unique device, which is called hostname. 2. IP (Internet Protocol) address is as a unique identifier for each device on the Internet. Length of the IP address is 32- bits. IPv6 address is 128 bits. 3. DNS stands for Domain Name System. It is a server which translates URL or web addresses into their corresponding IP addresses. 4. MAC (Media Access Control Address) is known as a physical address is a unique identifier of each host and is associated with the NIC (Network Interface Card). General length of MAC address is : 12-digit/ 6 bytes/ 48 bits 5. Port is a logical channel which allows network users to send or receive data to an application. Every host can have multiple applications running. Each of these applications are identified using the port number on which they are running. 1.35 Internet Internet is a group of computer systems connected from all around the world. The Internet protocol suite is a framework defined through the Internet standards. The internet is the largest computer network in the world, connecting millions of computers. 49 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.36 Working of the internet It uses an Internet Protocol (IP) and Transport Control Protocol (TCP)- based packet routing network. TCP and IP work together to ensure that data transmission across the internet is consistent and reliable, regardless of the device or location. Data is delivered across the internet in the form of messages and packets. A message is a piece of data delivered over the internet, but before it is sent, it is broken down into smaller pieces known as packets. IP is a set of rules that control how data is transmitted from one computer to another via the internet. The TCP is used with IP to ensure that data is transferred in a secure and reliable manner. This ensures that no packets are lost, that packets are reassembled in the correct order, and that there is no delay that degrades data quality. 1.37 Uses of the Internet: 1. E-mail: E-mail is an electronic message sent across a network from one computer user to one or more recipients. 2. Web Chat: Web chat is an application that allows you to send and receive messages in real-time with others. 3. World Wide Web: The World Wide Web is the Internet’s most popular information exchange service. It provides users with access to a large number of documents that are linked together using hypertext or hyperlinks. 50 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 4. E-commerce: E-commerce refers to electronic business transactions made over the Internet 5. Internet telephony: The technique that converts analog speech impulses into digital signals and routes them through packet- switched networks of the internet is known as internet telephony. 6. Video conferencing: The term “video conferencing” refers to the use of voice and images to communicate amongst users. 1.38 Basic Terminologies of Internet 1. A web browser is a software program software that searches for, retrieves, and presentations material which includes Web pages, photos, videos, and different files. The browser sends a request to the Webserver, which then transmits the statistics returned to the browser, which presentations the findings at the laptop. Example Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, Google Chrome, Safari etc. Webpage: An internet web page (additionally called a web page) is a report that may be regarded in an internet browser at the World Wide Web. Website An internet site (abbreviated as “website” or “site”) is a group of online pages connected collectively through links and saved on an internet server. By clicking on links, a tourist can pass from one web page to the next. An internet site’s pages also are connected below one area call and proportion a not unusual place subject matter and template. Search Engine: Search engines are websites that search on the internet on behalf of users and show a listing of results. 51 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Hyperlink: A link to a computer or web resource embedded in a hypertext is known as a hyperlink. Hyperlink is a URL (address) of a computer resource which is hidden under a text, image, video. Hypertext: A text (or a graphics) over which a link to a computer resource such as a webpage is embedded is called a hypertext. Lecture 12 Privacy and Security 1.39 Introduction Computer security refers to protecting and securing computers and their related data, networks, software, hardware from unauthorized access, misuse, theft, information loss, and other security issues. 52 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.40 Types of computer security Computer security can be classified into four types: 1. Cyber Security: Cyber security means securing our computers, electronic devices, networks, programs, systems from cyber- attacks. Cyber-attacks are those attacks that happen when our system is connected to the Internet. 2. Information Security: Information security means protecting our system’s information from theft, illegal use and piracy from unauthorized use. 3. Application Security: Application security means securing our applications and data so that they don’t get hacked and also the databases of the applications remain safe and private to the owner itself so that user’s data remains confidential. 4. Network Security: Network security means securing a network and protecting the user’s information about who is connected through that network. Over the network hackers steal, the packets of data through sniffing and spoofing attacks, man in the middle attack, war driving, etc, and misuse the data for their benefits. 1.41 The CIA Triad Computer security is mainly concerned with three main areas: 53 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1. Confidentiality is ensuring that information is available only to the intended audience 2. Integrity is protecting information from being modified by unauthorized parties 3. Availability is protecting information from being modified by unauthorized parties 1.42 Types of Attacks 1. Denial of service (DDoS): This is an attack used to restrict the user’s access to the system resources by flooding the server with useless traffic. 2. Malware attack: This is a malicious program that disrupts or damages the computer. There are four main types of malware: Keylogger: Keylogger records all the hits on the targeted keyboard. Most hackers use it to get passwords and account details. 54 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester Virus: A computer virus is a malicious code that replicates by copying itself to another program or document and changes how a computer works. Worms: The worm propagates itself through network share devices. Trojan horse: This is a malicious code that takes over your computer. This code can damage or steal information from your computer. 3. Man in the middle 4. Phishing 5. Eavesdropping: 1.43 How Do You Secure Your Computer? 1. Secure passwords 2. Regular updates 3. Antivirus 4. Firewalls 5. Anti-Phishing Tactics 6. Encryption Lecture 13 Artificial Intelligence 55 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 1.44 Introduction of AI Artificial Intelligence (AI) encompasses developing computer systems capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence. These tasks include learning from experiences, interpreting complex data, making decisions based on the information gathered, understanding natural language, and recognizing patterns or objects.The essence of AI lies in its ability to mimic cognitive functions associated with the human mind, such as learning and problem-solving. 1.45 Components of AI Artificial Intelligence (AI) is built upon several key components that work together to enable machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence. These components include algorithms, data, computing power, and models. 1. Algorithms: are the step-by-step procedures or formulas for solving problems. In AI, algorithms process data, make decisions, and learn from patterns. Types of Algorithms ✓ Supervised Learning Algorithms: These algorithms learn from labeled data and make predictions based on that data. ✓ Unsupervised Learning Algorithms: These algorithms find hidden patterns or intrinsic structures in input data that are not labeled. ✓ Reinforcement Learning Algorithms: These algorithms learn by interacting with an environment and receiving rewards or penalties. 56 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester 2. Data: is the foundation of AI. AI systems require large amounts of data to learn and make accurate predictions. The quality and quantity of data significantly impact the performance of AI models. Types of Data ✓ Structured Data: Databases and spreadsheets are organized in a tabular format. Examples include customer information, transaction records, and sensor readings. ✓ Unstructured Data: Data that is not organized in a predefined manner, such as text, images, audio, and video. Examples include social media posts, emails, and medical images. 3. Computing Power: is crucial for training and deploying AI models. The complexity and size of modern AI models require significant computational resources to process large datasets and perform complex calculations. 4. Models: AI models are mathematical representations of real-world processes created by training algorithms on data. These models can make predictions, recognize patterns, and make decisions based on new input data. 1.46 Types of AI: Narrow, General, and Super AI The categorization of AI into Narrow, General, and Super AI provides a framework for understanding its capabilities and potential future development. 1. Narrow AI (or Weak AI): refers to AI systems designed and trained for a specific task. These systems operate within a limited pre-defined range or set of contexts. Examples of Narrow AI are 57 Introduction to Computer Science First Stage First Semester prevalent in our daily lives, including speech recognition systems like Siri or Alexa, recommendation systems on Netflix or Amazon, and facial recognition technologies. 2. General AI (or Strong AI): General AI represents a system that can understand, learn, and apply its intelligence to solve problems with the same competence as humans. This level of AI could perform any intellectual task a human can do. encompasses the ability to reason, solve puzzles, make judgments under uncertainty, plan, learn, and integrate prior knowledge in decision- making processes. 3. Super AI: Super AI is a hypothetical stage of artificial intelligence that surpasses human intelligence across all fields, including creativity, general wisdom, and problem-solving. Its implications are profound, raising questions about ethics, governance, and the very fabric of human society. 1.47 How does AI work? In general, AI systems work by ingesting large amounts of labeled training data, analyzing that data for correlations and patterns, and using these patterns to make predictions about future states.