Forensic Science Chapter 1 PDF

Chapter 1 Forensic Science What is Forensic Science? ◼ Forensic Science is the application of science to the criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system ◼ Forensic science is an umbrella term encompassing many different professions...

Chapter 1 Forensic Science What is Forensic Science? ◼ Forensic Science is the application of science to the criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system ◼ Forensic science is an umbrella term encompassing many different professions Development of Forensic Science Organizations ◼ American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) ▪ Established in 1948 ▪ Approximately 5,000 members representing all forensic science disciplines and specialties ▪ Started the Journal of Forensic Sciences in 1954 2007 McGraw-Hill Companies, all rights reserved  List of Professions - AAFS 1. Criminalistics – study of criminal behavior 2. Digital Sciences – computers and technology 3. Engineering Science – buildings ▪ Hurricane-proofing, How WTC collapsed 4. Jurisprudence – philosophy of law; attorneys 5. Odontology – dental and teeth 6. Pathology/Biology – diseases; forensic medicine; cause and manner of death 7. Anthropology – study of humans, past and present ▪ Includes the study of bones 8. Psychiatry – mental health 9. Questioned Documents – frauds and forgery 10. Toxicology – chemicals What will be in this book? ◼ The book limits itself to the following areas: ▪ Chemistry ▪ Biology ▪ Physics ▪ Geology ▪ Computer technology ◼ Focus on the crime lab – where science is applied to crime scene analysis  Forensic Science vs. Criminalist Criminalistics: ◼ analysis, comparison, identification, and interpretation of the physical evidence of a crime scene ◼ This term is a simple way to describe the services of the crime laboratory ◼ The title Forensic Scientist and Criminalist are interchangeable History & Development of Forensic Science Origins of Forensic Science ◼ “Forensic” comes from the Latin word “forensis” meaning forum. ◼ During the time of the Romans, a criminal charge meant presenting the case before the public. ◼ Both the person accused of the crime & the accuser would give speeches based on their side of the story. ◼ The individual with the best argumentation would determine the outcome of the case. Early Developments China ◼ Yi Yu Ji ▪ “A Collection of Criminal Cases” ▪ 3rd Century China ▪ A manuscript reports how a coroner solved a case in which a women was suspected of murdering her husband, burning his body, and claiming he died in an accidental fire. ◼ Chinese also among the first to recognize fingerprints as a means of identification Marcello Malpighi ◼ Professor in Italy in 1686 ◼ First recorded notes about fingerprint characteristics ◼ However, he did not acknowledge fingerprints as a method of identification ◼ That did not happen until more than a century later Initial Scientific Advances Mathieu J.B. Orfila (1787-1853) ◼ “Father of Forensic Toxicology” ◼ Published the first scientific treatise on the detection of poisons and their effects on animals ▪ Established forensic toxicology as a legitimate scientific endeavor  th Late 19 -Century Progress  Alphonse Bertillon “Father of Anthropometry” ◼ Developed an anthropometric system for human identification in the 1890s ◼ The limitations of this system was shown by its inability to distinguish between two Leavenworth, Kansas, penitentiary prisoners, Will West & William West ◼ The Bertillon system was eventually replaced by the fingerprint system 2007 McGraw-Hill Companies, all rights reserved Anthropometry This is Bertillon’s system of bodily measurements as used for the identification of an individual Francis Henry Galton (1822-1911) ◼ “Father of Fingerprinting” ◼ 1892 - Developed fingerprinting as a way to uniquely identify individuals and classify prints for filing ◼ Published Finger Prints, the first comprehensive book on the nature of fingerprints and their use in solving crime Hans Gross (1847-1915) ◼ Public Prosecutor in Austria ◼ Studied and developed principles (methods) for criminal investigation  Sherlock Holmes ◼ Arguably the best-known figure in forensics in the late 1800’s ◼ Fictional character created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle ◼ Popularized scientific crime-detection methods ◼ Holmes applies newly developing principles like serology, fingerprinting, firearm ID, and questioned-document examination before their value was recognized and accepted in real-life  th 20 -Century Breakthroughs  Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943) ◼ First person to discover that blood types can be grouped in to different categories in 1901 ▪ Blood Types : A, B, AB, O Leone Lattes ◼ In 1915, he developed a relatively simple procedure for determining the blood group of dried bloodstains ◼ He immediately applied this technique to criminal investivation Albert Osborn (1858-1946) ◼ “Father of Document Examination” ▪ published “Questioned Documents” ▪ His work led to the acceptance of documents as scientific evidence by the courts. Edmond Locard (1877-1966) ◼ “Father of the Crime Lab” ◼ Established one of the world’s first police crime laboratories in Lyon, France in 1910 ◼ With few tools, he quickly became known world-wide to forensic scientists & criminal investigators & eventually founded the Institute of Criminalistics in France. ◼ His most important contribution was the “Locard’s Exchange Principle” Locard’s Exchange Principle ◼ “Every Contact Leaves a Trace” ◼ He believed that every criminal can be connected to a crime by particles carried from the crime scene. ◼ When a criminal comes in contact with an object or person, a cross-transfer of evidence occurs. Dr. Walter McCrone ◼ World’s most prominent microscopist in the early 1900’s Calvin Goddard (1891-1955) ◼ “Father of Ballistics” ◼ Established a crime detection laboratory at Chicago’s Northwestern University in 1929 ◼ Perfected the comparison microscope for bullet and cartridge case examinations Modern Scientific Advances Huge advances due to the revolution in computer technology  Sir Alec Jeffery 1984 –developed 1st DNA profiling test 1986 – first time DNA was used in solving case (Colin Pitchfork); also beginning of Innocence Project Chapter 1 Forensic Science Crime Labs Crime Labs ◼ Oldest forensic crime lab in the United States ▪ Started in 1923 in the Los Angeles Police Department ▪ Established by August Vollmer, a police chief in Berkeley Crime Labs ◼ 1930s – Vollmer also headed the first U.S. university institute for criminology and criminalistics ▪ University of California at Berkeley FBI Crime Lab ◼ J. Edgar Hoover – first director of the FBI ◼ 1932 - Organized a national lab that offered forensic services to law enforcement agencies throughout the country ▪ Extensively consulted with business executives, manufacturers, and scientists to most effectively organize the lab FBI Lab – Quantico, VA ◼ FBI Lab is now the largest in the world ▪ Perform more than 1 million examinations every year ◼ 1981 – FBI Forensic Science Research and Training Center https://www.fbi.gov/services/laboratory The Crime Lab ◼ US has no national system of forensic labs ▪ Many local law enforcement jurisdictions operate their own independent labs ◼ The development of crime laboratories in the United States has been characterized by ▪ Rapid growth ▪ Lack of national and regional planning and coordination ◼ As of 2009, 411 public crime laboratories operate at various levels of government—federal, state, county, and municipal The Crime Lab ◼ The ever increasing number of crime laboratories is partly the result of the following: ▪ Increase in crime ▪ Crime laboratories are inundated with drug specimens due to accelerated drug abuse ▪ War on Drugs ▪ Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s that put greater emphasis on scientifically evaluated evidence ▪ The advent of DNA profiling ◼ Growing need for forensic scientists 8 Major National Crime Labs ◼ FBI Crime Lab ◼ DEA Crime Lab ◼ Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives Crime Lab ◼ U.S. Postal Inspection Service Alabama Crime Labs ◼ One of a few states that has a comprehensive, statewide system of regional or satellite labs that operate under the direction of a central facility ◼ Alabama Department of Forensic Science – established in 1935 ▪ http://www.adfs.alabama.gov/Default.aspx Services of a Crime Lab ◼ Labs offer a wide variety of services, but a “full-service” lab will offer the following: ▪ Physical science unit – applies chemistry, physics, and geology to crime scene investigation ▪ Biology unit – DNA profiling, compare hairs/fibers, ID botanical material (wood, plants) ▪ Firearms unit – shell casings, firearm discharge residue, tool marks ▪ Document examination unit – handwriting, paper and ink analysis , erasures, burned documents ▪ Photography unit – examines and records evidence Optional Services of a Lab ◼ Toxicology unit – presence of drugs/poisons ◼ Latent fingerprint unit ◼ Polygraph unit – not as common today ◼ Voiceprint analysis unit – analyze voice recordings from telephoned threats or recorded messages ◼ Crime-scene investigation unit – dispatch trained personnel to the crime scene Other Specialized Services ◼ Forensic psychiatry – examines relationship between human behavior and legal proceedings, criminal profiling ▪ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qVCfABHnBH w ◼ Forensic odontology – ID victims based on dental evidence and analyze bite mark patterns Other Specialized Services ◼ Forensic engineering – failure analysis, accident reconstruction, causes and origins of fires/explosions ◼ Forensic computer and digital analysis – newest and fastest growing field in forensics; ID, collect, preserve, and examine information derived from computers and digital devices Supreme Court Cases ◼ Frye v. United States (1923) ▪ Ruled that polygraph tests were inadmissible as evidence ▪ This ruling set the guidelines for determining the admissibility of scientific evidence into the courtroom ▪ To be admitted as evidence, the questioned procedure, technique, or principles must be “generally accepted” by the scientific community Supreme Court Cases ◼ Frye v. United States ▪ Admissibility of expert testimony ▪ Under the Frye Standard, a witness “qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education” may offer expert testimony on a scientific or technical matter if 1. “the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data” 2. “the testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods” and 3. “the witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case” Supreme Court Cases ◼ Daubert v Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (1993) ▪ Ruled that the Frye Standard (“general acceptance”) is not absolutely required to admit scientific evidence into a trial ▪ Judge acts as a “gatekeeper” in determining admissibility and reliability of scientific evidence admitted Supreme Court Cases ◼ Daubert v. Merrill Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. ▪ Daubert Test – guidelines as to how a judge should gauge whether to admit evidence or not 1. Whether the technique or theory can/has been tested 2. Whether it has been subject to peer review and publication 3. Its potential error rate 4. Existence and maintenance of standards controlling its operation 5. Whether it has attracted widespread acceptance within the relevant scientific community ▪ This test is designed to keep pseudoscience out of the courtroom Expert Witness ◼ An individual whom the court determines to possess a particular skill or knowledge in a trade or profession that is not expected of the average layperson and that will aid a court in determining the truth of a matter at trial