Forensic Science Careers and History PDF

# Forensic Science History | Careers - Forensic Science is using science to help resolve legal matters such as crimes. - A Forensic Science Investigator is only interested in collecting evidence and examining it, reporting results to law enforcement, and possibly testifying in court about their fin...

# Forensic Science History | Careers - Forensic Science is using science to help resolve legal matters such as crimes. - A Forensic Science Investigator is only interested in collecting evidence and examining it, reporting results to law enforcement, and possibly testifying in court about their findings. - The Forensic Science examiner is the only one that identifies the evidence, documents it, and determines its significance. ## What Do Forensic Scientists Do? - Find evidence and decide what needs to be collected, documented, etc. - Collecting evidence includes collecting qualitative and quantitative data. - Must be a good communicator to prove to a jury that they are right. - Both Forensic Scientists and police have analytical skills, for example: identifying a problem, isolating it, and drawing appropriate conclusions. ## Significant Events - **1967:** Paul Ekman found that human beings can make 10,000 facial micro-expressions and 3,000 to express emotion and non-verbal communication. - **1974:** Elizabeth Loftus explained how misinformation leads to false memories. - **2012:** Scott Fraser described the fallibility of memory reconstruction. - **2014:** Pamela Meyer publishes work on how to detect lying. - **2016:** Interrogation techniques that are modified for eyewitnesses and suspects. ## What Do Forensic Scientists Do - Part 2: - The last part is done through deductive reasoning. - Deriving a conclusion using a series of logical steps. - **Scientific method** is used for: - Claim - Evidence - Reasoning model ## Observation and Perception - What a person perceives using their senses. - Instead of constant data flowing into our brains, we have an unconscious filter and we only pay attention to what is most likely important. - **Perception:** our brain's interpretation of our sensory observations after our brain filtered and processed it. It is limited and is not always accurate. For example, when our brain fills in information that is not present. - We believe what we see and hear, even though our ability to be accurate is flawed. ## Eyewitness Observation - Perception of eyewitnesses can be faulty. - Emotional states such as anxiety can also interfere with an accurate memory. - Other factors are prejudices, personal beliefs, etc. - They can still be valuable evidence, especially if told from a bystander who don't experience the anxiety. - Some victims are also less subject to disruptive effects of anxiety on memory. ## Eyewitness Accounts - Eyewitness accounts of a crime scene can vary considerably. - Memory fades with time, and our brains tend to fill in details that are not accurate. - Forensic investigators must differentiate between facts (statements/info that can be verified) and opinions (personal beliefs based on judgement). - After eyewitnesses, investigators try to sequence facts into a logical pattern. ## Improving Observation Skills 1. **Not naturally inclined to pay attention to all the details of our surroundings.** - Examine your environment systematically. 2. **Naturally inclined to filter out information we assume to be unimportant.** - We need to consciously observe everything. 3. **Naturally inclined to interpret and see nonexistent patterns** - Leaving interpretation until we have as much information as possible. 4. **We know that our memories are faulty.** - Document and photograph us much as possible. - Effective interview techniques help observers recall events in unbiased ways. ## Forensic Science Timeline - **250:** Erasistratus noticed that the pulse rate of patients increased when they died. - **1247:** Sung Tzu writes *Washing Away the Wrong* - the first book on how to use medical knowledge to investigate death. - **1840:** Mathieu Orfila (Father of Toxicology) applies the Marsh test to detect arsenic. - **1883:** Alphonse Bertillon invents Anthropometry - recorded measurements of a human body in order to find criminals. - **1892:** Sir Francis Galton classifies fingerprints into 8 categories based on patterns. - **1910:** Edmond Locard establishes the first police crime lab and the Locard Principle. - **1920s:** Luke Way publishes *Identification of Knives, Tools and Instruments*. - **1937:** Walter Specht develops luminol - a substance that glows blue when contacting blood. - **1950:** Max Frei-Sulzer: the first individual to use tape to lift trace evidence. - **1974:** Scientists develop gunshot residue methods. - **1984:** Sir Alec Jeffreys develops DNA fingerprinting. ## Careers in Forensic Science - **CSI (Crime scene investigator):** - Analyze crime scenes. - Collect and process evidence. - Write crime scene reports. - On call 24/7. - **Forensic photographer:** - Visually documents crime scenes. - Needs a knowledge of UV and infrared light. ## Trace Evidence Examiner - Identifies and compares physical evidence such as hair, fibers, etc. through physical or chemical analysis. ## Latent Print Examiner - “Lifts” fingerprints from a crime scene using powder or chemicals. - Runs them through physical and chemical analysis. - Checks the print through electronic databases. ## Forensic Serologist/Biologist - Processes/compares/identifies biological evidence such as blood, DNA analysis. - Often called in to testify in court cases. ## Forensic Toxicologist. - Examines body fluids and organs to determine the presence of drugs and poisons. ## Questioned Document Examiner - Studies handwriting and typeface on questioned documents to determine authenticity and origin. ## Firearm Examiner. - Examines firearms and discharged ammunition. ## Forensic Entomologist - Studies insects to estimate the time of death. ## Forensic Computer Science: - Collects and identifies data from computers and other digital devices. ## Forensic Engineers: - Concerned with failure analysis, accident reconstruction, origins of fires and explosions. ## Forensic Odontology: - Identifies and compares dental evidence. ## Forensic Pathology: - Dealing with legal purposes and determining the time of death. - Works with ME and performs autopsies. ## Criminologist: - Studies of why criminals commit crimes. ## Other Important Information - **Calvin Goddard:** Established the study of firearms evidence in the U.S. and a variety of police labs. Also invented the comparison scope. - **Hans Gross:** Published the first forensic science textbook *Criminal Intern Investigations* in 1893. - **Victor Bathazard:** Advanced fingerprint, firearm, and hair analysis. - **Juan Vucitech:** Began the first fingerprint files in 1891. - **Gilbert Thomas:** Used fingerprints officially in the U.S. for the first time in 1882. - **William Herschel:** First to use fingerprinting as a method of identification. - **Dr. Henry Faulds:** Came up with a classification based on fingerprints in 1880. - **Karl Landsteiner:** Discovered ABO Blood Typing and received a Nobel Prize in Medicine for his work in 1930. - **Henry Classification System:** Classification for fingerprinting in all European countries. - The odds for two fingerprints being the same is 1 in 64 billion. - **Adversarial system:** The system in which lawyers work. - **Finder of Fact:** Judge or jury who determines “right” in a case. - **Voir dire:** Qualifications of a scientist given in a court of law. - **Subpoena:** A statement requiring someone to appear in court and when/where the trial is held. - **Alfred Lucas:** Archaeologist and Chemist who authored the first known forensic chemistry textbook in 1912. He is best known for working with Howard Carter on the tomb of Tutankhamen. ## Chapter One: Justice and Science - **Forensic Science:** Focuses on applying scientific methods to criminal investigations. Analyzing evidence such as DNA, blood, drugs, etc. Different from Criminology (social and human aspects of a crime). Findings from forensic scientists can change the overall judgment. *Case Study Approach* with reliance on physical evidence, interpretation, and hypothesis testing. - **Bias:** Can always happen. Contextual information often causes bias. External information that might set some context for the issue. Sequential unmasking can limit bias. Information is provided in a step-by-step manner. - **Accreditation of labs:** Means that the lab has agreed to operate by a certain professional standard. Largest accreditation group is the: American Association of Crime Lab Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board. - **Reproducibility:** Results are peer-reviewed and should be reproducible. - **Law vs. Science:** - **Law:** Goal is to settle disputes. Merit judged by competing arguments. - **Science:** Goal is to understand the Natural world. Merit judged by scientific processes. - **Evidence (in court):** Is presented to the Trier of Fact (who makes the decision for a case) by the given evidence? - **Ethics** - American Academy of Forensic Sciences has a code of ethics and an ethics committee. - Annie Dookhan Boston Example.