Forensic Science PDF

DKG24 - FORENSIC SCIENCE AND FORENSIC MEDICINE Unit-I: Forensic Science Forensic Science-definition, history, development and scope. Principles and Methods of Forensic Science. State and Central Forensic Science Laboratories. Mobile Forensic Science Laboratory. Counterfeit Coins and Currency notes....

DKG24 - FORENSIC SCIENCE AND FORENSIC MEDICINE Unit-I: Forensic Science Forensic Science-definition, history, development and scope. Principles and Methods of Forensic Science. State and Central Forensic Science Laboratories. Mobile Forensic Science Laboratory. Counterfeit Coins and Currency notes. Scene of Crime: General crime scene procedure – notes of observation, photography, sketching. Questioned documents-writing materials. Ballistics. Unit-II: Physical Evidence Classification of physical evidence – class and individual characteristics. Identification and individualization of physical evidence. Locards Principle of exchange Varieties of trace evidence. Footwear impressions: Tyre marks, skid marks – tool marks and their significance. Unit-III: Personal Identification Finger Prints-history, development, patterns, ridge characteristics, primary and single digit classification, counting and importance. Developing, Lifting, Foot prints comparison and identification development, lifting and comparison of Track prints. The study of blood, semen etc. body fluids. Blood tests, Inheritance of blood groups. Structure and Identification of Human. Medico legal importance of Age. Unit-IV: Forensic Medicine Forensic Medicine - Definition, nature and scope. Inquests. Medico Legal documents- Evidences- Dying declarations- Identification of dead and living persons. Medico-legal autopsy. Infamous conduct, Consent – Euthanasia. Examination of decomposed and mutilated bodies. Death, types, modes and signs. Death-medico-legal importance. Medico- legal aspect of violent deaths. Post mortem changes: Immediate, Early and Late changes after death. Preservation of bodies- Presumption of death- Exhumation. Toxicology. Unit-V: Injuries and Sex related issues Wounds and injuries. Definitions- Mechanical Injuries: abrasions, contusions, Lacerations, Incisions, Cut Wounds, Punctured wounds, Thermal Injuries, Electrical Injuries, Asphyxial death: Hanging, Strangulation, Smothering, Gagging, Choking, Dry and wet Drowning. Sex related issues: Potency- Sterility- virginity. RECOMMENDED READINGS 1. Apurba Nandy (2002) Principles of Forensic Medicine. 2. Bann, Polson C.J., Knight Bernard, Essentials of Forensic medicine 3. Barry A.J. Fisher., (2000) Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, 6th Edition, CRC Press, New York 4. Basu S.C., Handbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology 1 5. Brian H. Kaye (2995) Science and the Detective, VCH, Weinbeim, Federal Republic of Germany. 6. Camps F.E, Gradwohl’s Legal medicine 7. Peter R. De Forest et.al (1983) Forensic Science: An introduction to Criminalistics, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York. 8. Peter White (Ed.,) (1998) Crime Scene to Court – The essentials of Forensic Science, The Royal Society of Chemistry, UK. 9. Saferstein R., (2001) Criminalistics: An introduction to Forensic Science, Prentice Hall, Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 2001. 10. William G. Eckert., (1997) Introduction to Forensic Sciences, CRC press New York. 2  UNIT- 1 FORENSIC SCIENCE The term ―forensic science‖ refers to a group of scientific disciplines which are concerned with the application of their particular scientific area of expertise to law enforcement, criminal, civil, legal, and judicial matters. Forensic science (often shortened to forensics) is the application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to a legal system. This may be in relation to a crime or a civil action. The word forensic comes from the Latin forēnsis, meaning "of or before the forum." The Simplest definition of Forensic science is any science used within the Criminal justice system. Crime scene investigators and lab technicians use specialized skills and tools to collect, analyse and present evidence in order to solve a crime or successfully convict the offender. The increased use of scientific methods to collect and examine evidence has led to the closure of many criminal cases that could not be solved through old fashioned detctive work alone. New testing methods are even being applied to cold cases, or cases from many years ago that remain unsolved. Forensic Science can be used to 1. Prove elements of crime 2. Verify or discredit victim or suspect statements 3. Identify decedents or suspects 4. Establish a connection to a crime or crime scene History and development of forensic science in India. The application of science and technology to the detection and investigation of crime and administration of justice is not new to India. Although our ancestors did not know forensic science in its present form, scientific methods in one way or the other seem to have been followed in the investigation of crime. Its detailed reference is found in Kautilya‘s ‗Arthashastra,‘ which was written about 2300 years ago. Indians studied various patterns of the papillary lines, thousands of years ago. It is presumed that they knew about the persistency and individuality of fingerprints, which they used as signatures. Even Mr. KM Kata, a frequent contributor to ‗Nature‘, stated that the Chinese records proved the use of fingerprints in an ancient kingdom of southern India. The Indians knew for long that the handprints, known as the Tarija‘, were inimitable. The use of fingerprints as signatures by illiterate people in India, introduced centuries ago, was considered by some people as 3 ceremonial only, till it was scientifically proved that identification from fingerprints was infallible. Chemical examiner’s laboratories: During the nineteenth century, when the cases of death due to poisoning posed a problem to the law enforcement agencies, a need was felt for isolating, detecting and estimating various poisons absorbed in the human system. The first Chemical Examiner‘s Laboratory was, therefore, set up for this purpose at the then Madras Presidency, under the Department of Health, during 1849. Later, similar laboratories were set up at Calcutta (1853), followed by one each at Agra (1864) and Bombay (1870). These laboratories were equipped to handle toxicological analysis of viscera, biological analysis of stains of blood, semen, etc. and chemical analysis of food, drugs, and various excisable materials to provide scientific support to the criminal justice delivery system within their limited means. These laboratories also provided analytical facilities to the neighbouring States and Union Territories. Anthropometric bureau: While some progress was made in the identification of poisons, the identification of people, specifically criminals, was still being done in a rather haphazard manner. Policemen would try to memorize convict‘s face so that they could recognize him if he got involved in another crime later. With the introduction of Photography, the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) maintained records of every known criminal including a detailed description of his appearance. With the invention of Bertillon‘s anthropometric system in 1878, India, along with the other countries of the world, adapted Bertillon‘s system of personnel identification and thus an Anthropometric Bureau, for maintaining anthropornetric records of criminals, was established in 1892 at Calcutta. Finger print bureau: William Herschel, the Collector of the District of Hooghly (Bengal) found that markings on the fingertips of a person never changed during his lifetime. Herschel applied his knowledge and skill in devising a system of registration of finger or thumb impressions of native contractors to safeguard the interests of the Govermnent against the repudiation of contracts by them. Thereafter, he extended his registration procedure to prison regulations for identifying convicted criminals. In 1877, Herschel sought the consent of his superior officers in putting his ideas into practice, but did not succeed. In 1891, Edward Richard Henry‘s appointment, the Inspector General of Police in Bengal, introduced the thumb impressions in the record slips, containing anthropometric data, to avoid wrong identification. Long before 1897, he introduced maintenance of duplicate criminal records with impressions of 10 fingers 4 separately. Henry employed few selected Indian police officers, viz. Khan Bahadur Azizul Huq and Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose to work under his general supervision till the classification was evolved, which remains the basic system even to-day. It was Khan Bahadur Azizul Huq who evolved a mathematical formula to supplement Henry‘s idea of sorting slips in 1024 pigeon holes, based on fingerprint patterns. Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose made further contribution to the fingerprint science by evolving an extended systern of sub-classification, a telegraphic code for finger impression and a system of single-digit classification. Henry approached the Government to seek approval for replacing the anthropometric data by fingerprints for the identification of habitual criminals. Government readily agreed, and the first fingerprint bureau in the world was officially declared open at Calcutta in July 1897, although the collection of record slips had started a few years earlier. Thus, the personnel identification solely on the basis of fingerprints commenced in India. Department of explosives: When the use of explosives for subversive activities became common, it was found necessary to detect the causes of explosion, either accidental or intentional. The foundation of the Department of Explosives was laid when the first chief inspector of explosives was appointed in the year 1898, with his headquarters at Nagpur. Later, five regional offices at Calcutta, Bombay, Agra, Madras and Gwalior, and three sub-offices at Shivkashi. Gomia and Asallsol were opened. They developed competence to provide scientific clues in respect of explosives as well as the possible causes of explosions. Their expertise came handy in police investigations in the crimes related to explosions and for evolving various provisions under the Explosives & Petroleum Act. Government examiner of questioned document, Shimla: The British Government of Bengal felt the necessity of identifying the handwritings on the secret documents connected with the Indian independence movement and, therefore, created the post of Government Handwriting Expert of Bengal. Mr. CR Hardless, the then Superintendent in the A.G.‘s office in Bengal, was appointed to this post in 1904. This set-up was shifted to Shimla in the year 1906 and was placed under the control of the Director, CID. A post of Handwriting Expert for the Government of India was created and Mr. CR Hardless was appointed to this post. He was replaced by Mr. F Brewester, a police officer from the West Bengal CID, and was designated as the Government Examiner of Questioned Documents (GEQD). At first, the work of this office was mainly confined to the identification of writings on secret documents. Later, as the application of this branch of 5 science was felt in many other cases, the services of this office were thrown open to criminal as well as civil court cases. During the World War II, this organization took up the additional work of secret censorship, including the detection of invisible writings and training of military personnel in this field of science. Serologist to the Government of India: When the science of examining human blood developed in India, it became possible to examine blood and seminal stains in criminal investigations. Realising the importance of Forensic Serology, an institute named as Serology Department‘ was established in Calcutta in 1910. The head of this institute was designated as Imperial Serologist to the Government of India. Dr. Hankin helped in establishing this department. Though the scientific techniques for serological examination were at the infancy stage, this institute provided valuable scientific support by analyzing biological materials for crime investigations. After independence, the department was renamed as ‗Office of the Serologist and Chemical Examiner to the Government of India‘. Footprint section of criminal investigation department: During the year 1915, a Footprint Section was established under the CID, Government of Bengal, which helped the police authorities to identify criminals through the examination of footprints collected from the scene of crime. SM Edwardes recorded the following instance in his book ‗Bombay City Police‘ showing the use of the footmarks in police work. ‗On several occasions, Indian constables distinguished themselves by acts of bravery and examples of professional acumen. The detection of a burglary in the showroom of an English firm was entirely due to the action of a Hindu constable, who noticed on a piece of furniture the marks of a foot possessing certain peculiarities, which he remembered having seen before in the foot of an ex-convict.‘ Note forgery section in criminal investigation department: During 1917, a Note Forgery Section was set up under the CID, Government of Bengal, to undertake the examination of forged currency notes. The Revenue Department also started its own laboratory for identification of opium and narcotics, liquor analysis and estimation of purity levels of precious metals like gold, silver, etc. Similarly, Government Mint and Security Printing Departments at Nasik also established their own laboratories for detecting cases of counterfeit and forged currency notes. Ballistics laboratory: In 1930, an Arms Expert was appointed and a small ballistic laboratory was set up under the Calcutta Police to deal with the examination of firearms. As the menace of firearms 6 grew, other State CIDs also established small ballistics laboratories to help them in the criminal investigation. Scientific sections in the criminal investigation department: During 1936, a Scientific Section was set up under the CID in Bengal and facilities were created for examination of bullets, cartridge cases, firearms, etc., used in committing crime. Few other states also started scientific sections in their CID, where investigations on fingerprints, footprints, firearms and questioned documents were also carried out. Gradually, more and more branches of science were embraced and the laboratories gained maturity over the years. State forensic science laboratory, Calcutta: The first state forensic science laboratory in India was established in the year 1952 at Calcutta. This laboratory became fully operational in the year 1953. The Medico-legal Section of the Chemical Examiner‘s Laboratory was also transferred to this laboratory. During the year 1955, a small unit of Physics was established in the West Bengal State Forensic Science Laboratory to deal with various physical examinations of exhibits encountered in crime investigation. During the year 1957, the Physics unit developed into a full-fledged Physics Section. In the same year, the Footprint and the Note Forgery Sections of Criminal Investigation Department were transferred to this laboratory and in the following year General Chemistry Section of the Chemical Examiner‘s Laboratory was also transferred to this laboratory. Thus the first multidisciplinary forensic science laboratory came into existence in the country. Central finger print bureau: On the recommendations of the Royal Police Commission of 1902-03, the first Central Finger Print Bureau (CFPB) in India was established in 1905 at Shimla. It, however, suffered a setback and was abolished in 1922 as a result of retrenchment proposals of the Inchape Committee. The CFPB restarted functioning from 1955 in Delhi under the administrative control of Intelligence Bureau (IB). The major role envisaged for CFPB was to coordinate the activities of State FPBx in tracing/locating inter-state criminals. During August 1956, the CFPB was shifted to Calcutta and remained under the administrative control of IB. During September 1973, it was transferred to the Central Bureau of Investigation and during July 1986, the administrative control of the CFPB was transferred to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) and was again shifted to New Delhi. 7 Central detective training school at Calcutta: CDTS, Calcutta, a premier detective training school in India, was established during 1956 and was located (in the same premises) with the CFPB, Calcutta. The aim of establishing such a school was to impart training in scientific investigation of crimes like drug abuse, terrorism, explosion, crime against women, investigation of road accidents and enforcement of traffic laws, etc. Central forensic science laboratories: The first Central Forensic Science Laboratory was established at Calcutta during 1957. To begin with, this laboratory was organised into four basic disciplines viz. Forensic Physics, Forensic Chemistry, Forensic Biology and Forensic Ballistics. For application of nuclear methods of analysis to criminal investigation, the Neutron Activation Analysis Unit of CFSL, Calcutta was set up in 1970 at the Baba Atomic Research Centre, Bombay. During the year 1965, the second central forensic science laboratory was established at Hyderabad, The CFSL, Hyderabad initially established analytical facilities in the disciplines of Forensic Physics, Forensic Chemistry and Forensic Biology. The Central Forensic Science Laboratory, Chandigarh, was established, in the year 1933 at Lahore was shifted to Chandigarh during 1961. Over the years many full-fledged forensic science laboratories were established in various states. Central forensic institute, Calcutta: With the establishment of CDTS and CFSL, (later on GEQD also) in the same premises, under the control of Intelligence Bureau, the whole set up was named as the Central Forensic Institute (CFI), Calcutta. A post of Commandant was created during 1958 to look after the overall functioning of all these establishments, which had different roles but with the common larger goal of providing appropriate scientific inputs to the criminal investigation process and administration of criminal justice in the country. CDTS at Hyderabad & Chandigarh: The Central Detective Training School, Hyderabad was established in 1964, on the pattern of the CDTS, Calcutta, followed by another one at Chandigarh, during 1973. Their main objective was to train the operational police personnel in modern scientific techniques of crime investigation, with a view to improve their professional standard and efficiency. The role of central advisory committees: The Union Government, during 1959, appointed two committees for the purpose of giving a lead to all the States in establishing new forensic science laboratories and improving the existing ones, and for improving the study and application of Forensic Medicine. These 8 committees were (i) Central Forensic Science Advisory Committee and (ii) Central Medico- legal Advisory Committee. The Central Medico-legal Advisory Committee was to advise the Central and the State Governments on matters pertaining to medico-legal procedures and practices. The Central Advisory Committee on Forensic Science considered the issues related to the sphere of Forensic Science (excluding forensic medicine). The Central Medico-legal Advisory Committee was discontinued whereas the Central Forensic Science Advisory Committee was converted into Standing Committee on Forensic Science during the year 1972, which is functional even today in BPR&D. Indian academy of forensic science: The Indian Academy of Forensic Sciences (IAFS) was established in the year 1960. This academy started a biennial scientific journal, which served as a forum for the exchange of ideas in forensic science with the other international bodies. The role of the Academy was also to hold annual scientific meetings/seminars or assist in holding seminars in forensic science. In fact, it was at the instance of this Academy that the Government of India established the Neutron Activation Analysis Unit to cater for the forensic needs in the country. Teaching of forensic science in the universities: The question of introducing criminology and forensic science as the courses of study at the university level in India was taken up with the Vice-Chancellors of various universities during 1950, but the progress made in this direction was not encouraging. The need for university teaching of criminology and forensic science was also stressed in various annual meetings of the Central Advisory Committee on Forensic Science. A deputation headed by Shri KF Rustamji met the Chairman, University Grants Commission in August 1961 and the matter was again taken up by Shri DP Kohli, the then Director, Central Bureau of Investigation in 1967. As a result of these discussions, Dr DS Kothari, the then Chairman, University Grants Commission set up a high level committee to advise the Commission on the steps to be taken for introduction of Criminology and Forensic Sciences in university education. It recommended that universities should be encouraged to introduce courses in Criminology at the under-graduate level and postgraduate courses in Criminology and Forensic Science should be started only in a central autonomous institution, which should be affiliated to a university. Consequently three Universities viz., University of Sagar, Madras and Patiala started undergraduate and post-graduate courses in forensic science. It was further suggested that, as an initial step in this direction, one institute under the Central Government should be established in Delhi. The Committee recommended those two courses viz. Master‘s 9 Degree in Criminology and Master‘s Degree in Forensic Science should be organised in this Institute, besides Diploma courses for in-service personnel. The institute should also be developed as a center for research in Criminology and Forensic Science and should act as a clearinghouse of up-to-date information in these fields. Institute of criminology & forensic science at New Delhi: After a series of debates at the Government level, it was decided that initially the Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science should be established only for training the in-service personnel and for conducting research in the field of forensic science. It was felt that unless the State governments and the consumer organizations agreed to participate in the scheme, it would not be wise to start courses for granting postgraduate degrees. However, the ultimate objective of the Institute was to develop into a full-fledged academic institution affiliated to a university. With the above aim in view, the Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science (ICFS) was established in Delhi during 1971 with the limited objectives of imparting training to the in-service personnel and conducting research in Criminology and Forensic Science. It was also envisaged that the Institute should have two distinct faculties viz. the Faculty of Criminology and the Faculty of Forensic Science and both should have a number of eminent teachers and researchers with adequate background and field experience. Creation of forensic science division at BPR&D: On an invitation from the Government of India, Dr. VK Street, an eminent forensic scientist from the Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Edinburgh, UK, visited different Indian forensic science institutions during 1972 and submitted a report to the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. He strongly recommended for creation of a post of Chief Forensic Scientist in the Ministry of Home Affairs to look after its forensic science activities and to pay whole time attention for the development of this science in India. The Standing Committee on Forensic Science, during 1973, also recommended for the creation of a post of Chief Forensic Scientist so that the activities, which needed scientific inputs at the Union Government level, could be properly coordinated. The post of Chief Forensic Scientist was finally sanctioned during 1983, and the Forensic Science Directorate was created in BPR&D. Recommendations of scientific advisory committee to the cabinet: During 1983, the then Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet (SAC-C) under the overall guidance of an Expert Committee chaired by Prof. M. M. Sharma, FRS, recommended that the laboratories in Delhi, Calcutta and Hyderabad must be developed as S & T institutions, functioning in an autonomous fashion, with complete modernization of 10 equipment and manpower capabilities. In pursuance of these recommendations, the Government of India declared the forensic science institutions, at the central Government level as Science and technology institution. Based on the observations of the Expert Group of the SAC-C, BPR&D evolved a master plan for restructuring each CFSL of the BPR&D into fifteen scientific divisions. In the first phase, the three Central Forensic Science Laboratories at Calcutta, Hyderabad, and Chandigarh were restructured into six scientific division viz. Biology, Ballistics, Chemistry, Explosive, Physics, and Toxicology. Similarly, the offices of the Government Examiners of Questioned Documents at Shimla, Calcutta, and Hyderabad were strengthened in terms of manpower. Besides augmentation of staff, all the BPR&D laboratories registered significant progress in the acquisition of sophisticated analytical equipment and updating/modernizing the laboratory and library facilities for smooth working of these institutions. A new mandate to the CFSLs of BPR &D: During mid 1990‘s, it was realised that most of the States have established their own forensic science laboratories and hence the role of CFSLs to provide forensic analytical support to different states has got diluted. Hence the utility of three CFSLs at the national level was questioned. During 1997, this realization led to the process of defining the role of the CFSLs of BPR&D, de novo. The justification for the existence of the three Central Forensic Science Laboratories under the BPR&D was thought to be two folds. One, they should act as epitomes of quality and high standards for the State Laboratories to emulate. They should not only set visibly higher standards in quality of analytical processes and reporting accuracy, but also should be the repository of Standards and benchmarks against which the performance of all the State FSLs can be judged. BPR&D should, therefore, have a decisive say in the process of accreditation, not only of its own CFSLs/GEsQD, but also of all the State FSLs. Secondly, since forensic science is one of the most dynamic sciences, CFSLs should provide R&D support to this field of science. Every new research, development and invention in any discipline of science should have a potential of application in forensic science. Newer, better and more reliable technologies developed in all the disciplines need to be harnessed for the fight against crime. The BPR&D CFSLs should scout around for new developments outside the realm of forensic science and adapt them for use in Ms, standardize the processes and disseminate them to the State FSLs. In order to perform this yeomen service, the CFSLs need to maintain very high standards and specialization, way beyond what is possible in the State FSLs. 11 Strategy was evolved to bring about a complete paradigm change in the structure of the three BPR&D CFSLs and provide them a new focussed mandate of R&D and specialized training. It emerged that while preserving their composite structure, the three laboratories should have subject-specific exclusiveness and be developed as the ‗Centers of Excellence‘ for research and development and specialized training in the designated fields. Consequently, during 1998, the three CFSLs were reorganized with an aim to generate synergy and focus attention on research and development activities in the thrust areas of forensic science. This was possible only if all the available resources are pooled in the designated Centers of Excellence, rather than spread them very thin on the whole ground. Besides focussing on their core activity of R&D and specialized training in the designated field of forensic science, these laboratories also undertake crime case examination in all the fields of forensic science. However, the routine forensic analysis case work has now been restricted to those received from the Central Government organizations and State Governments/Union Territories, which have not yet established their own forensic science facilities. These laboratories also act as the referral centers for handling forensic analysis of crime cases requiring extensive investigation and high expertise, received from the courts of law, state and central forensic science institutions and other crime investigating agencies in India. The designated fields were chosen as follows: CFSL, Calcutta Forensic Biological Sciences CFSL, Hyderabad Forensic Chemical Sciences CFSL, Chandigarh Forensic Physical Sciences The Neutron Activation Analysis Unit of CFSL, Calcutta, operating at the BARC, Mumbai, was brought under the administrative control of CFSL, Hyderabad. Establishment of DNA typing laboratory at CFSL Calcutta: In response to the rising demands of providing high technology to the crime investigation process, BPR&D established the first Forensic DNA Typing facility at CFSL, Calcutta, during 1998. The implementation of this state-of-the-art technique represents significant advancements in the forensic biology in the country. The DNA Typing Unit at CFSL Calcutta is equipped with the most contemporary techniques of DNA typing, namely, Polymerize Chain Reaction (PCR) based method, HLADQ alpha and Polymarker technique, and Locus Specific Restricted Fragment Length Polymorphism technique. This laboratory, after being functional, has been referred many crime cases pertaining to murder, rape, rape and murder, 12 paternity disputes, organ transplant, exchange of babies in hospitals etc. DNA Typing facility has further been upgraded to conduct ‗Short Tandem Repeats Sequence based DNA Typing. Mobile Forensic Van (MFV) MVU helps in reaching crime scene at the earliest to assist the investigating officers (IOs) in identifying and collecting relevant forensic evidence from crime scene, victims and from suspects which are the primary sources of forensic evidence. The mobile forensic team assists the Investigating officer in linking the crime with the perpetrator through the forensic evidence, collected from the crime scene, victims and suspects. Counterfeit coins and currency notes: Counterfeiting most commonly applies to currency and coins. It is illegal to manufacture, possess, or sell equipment or materials for use in producing counterfeit coins and currency. The production of counterfeit money is a form of fraud. Counterfeit money has been around since the intervention of money. Before paper money, the main method of counterfeiting was to mix gold or silver with other base metals to form ―fool‘s gold.‖ During World War 2, the Germans would produce counterfeit American dollars and British pounds. In 2002, after the launch of the Euro, the amount of counterfeiting increased considerably. Euro banknotes and coins were mostly forged. Detection of Counterfeit Currency: First Line Inspection Methods: These methods are used on the spot by vendors and retailers to determine the authenticity of the currency. However, this method is not always accurate. The counterfeit marks are both visible to the counterfeiters and the verifier therefore resulting in the spotting of a fraudulent note. First Line inspection techniques includes Varied Density Watermarks: Thin watermark can be applied to the paper of banknotes due to the varied density. Watermarks are visible when a bright light shines on the back of a banknote. The varied paper density causes the light to intensify resulting in the watermark to appear on the other side. Ultraviolet Fluorescence: Embedding fluorescent fibres or printing ultra-violet ink paper creates an optical verification for easy on the spot detection. Exposing the paper to an ultra- violet light results in the embedded pattern becoming visible. Intaglio Printing: The banknote undergoes a high-pressure printing raises the paper structure. A latent image can be produced by using different alignments of the lines. The appearance should change based on the angle that the note is viewed. 13 Microtext: Banknotes commonly have small text printed at high resolutions. This resolution cannot be achieved by a commercial copier, scanner or printer. When a forgery attempt is made, the small text becomes blurred because of the change in resolution. This ultimately proves a banknote is counterfeited. Second Line Inspection Methods: A detection of counterfeit that cannot be verified by the naked eye and requires an extra device for detection. Second Line Inspection technique includes: Isocheck/Isogram: This method relies on a certain pattern of dots or lines to cause a specific type of pattern when printed or scanned. The hidden verification proves the authenticity of the note. Fibre-Based Certificates of Authenticity: Using a scanner to illuminate one end of the embedded fibre, the other corresponding end will illuminate. Once illuminated, a fibre string can be identified. This string can be converted into a bit string and combined with other data and a cryptographic hash of itself and is signed using a private key. This can be encoded onto the banknote in the form of a bar code or verification number. Color and Feature analysis: New image-processing softwares include secret detection algorithm to prevent banknotes from being altered. Punishment for Counterfeiting Currency in India: 1) Counterfeiting currency note or bank notes or knowingly performing any part of the process of counterfeiting such notes- Imprisonment upto 10 years and fine (Section 489-A) 2) Knowingly using a genuine or otherwise trafficking in forged or counterfeit currency note or bank notes- Imprisonment for life or imprisonment upto 10 years and fine (Section 489-B) 3) Possession with knowledge of such notes for such use, etc- Imprisonment upto 7 years or fine or both (Section 489-C) 4) Making or possessing instruments or materials for forging or counterfeiting currency notes or bank notes - Imprisonment for life or upto 10 years and fine (Section 489-D) 5) Making or causing to be made or using or delivering documents resembling currency notes or bank notes – Fine upto Rs. 100 (Section 489-E) Punishment for Counterfeiting Coins in India: 1) Counterfeiting coins or knowingly performing any part of the process of counterfeiting such coins- Imprisonment upto 7 years and fine (Section 231) 2) Counterfeiting Indian coins or knowingly performing any part of the process of counterfeiting - Imprisonment upto 10 years and fine (Section 232) 14 3) Making or selling or disposing of instrument for counterfeiting coin imprisonment for 3 years and fine (Section 233); for instrument for Indian coin- Imprisonment upto 7yrs and fine(Section 234) 4) Possession of instrument or material for counterfeiting coin with knowledge or reason to believe that it may be used for such purpose 3 years imprisonment and fine: for Indian Coins 10 years imprisonment and fine ( Section 235) 5) Abetting counterfeiting coin outside India punished as if abetting counterfeiting inside India(Section 236) 6) Import or export of counterfeiting coins -3 years of imprisonment and fine9 Section237); Indian coin – Imprisonment for life, or imprisonment for 10 years, and fine( Section 238) SCENE OF CRIME: CRIME SCENE: Any physical location in which a crime has occurred or is suspected of having occurred.  PRIMARY CRIME SCENE: The original location of a crime or accident  SECONDARY CRIME SCENE: An alternate location where additional evidence may be found. Securing the Crime Scene:  First priority is medical assistance to individuals & arresting the perpetrator.  Ropes or barricades and guards will prevent unauthorized access to the area.  Every person who enters the crime scene has the potential to destroy physical evidence.  The lead investigator evaluates the scene & determines the boundaries. They do an initial walk through & develop a strategy.  Once the scene is secured, lead investigator establishes: a. boundaries of the scene b. perpetrator‘s path of entrance and exit c. documentation of photographs of physical evidence d. strategy for systematic examination and documentation of entire crime scene Recording the Crime Scene: There are three methods of crime-scene recording. They are  photography,  sketches, &  notes Ideally all the three should be used 15 Photography:  The crime scene should be unaltered, unless injured people are involved, objects must not be moved until they have been photographed from all necessary angles.  If things are removed, added, or positions changed the photographs may not be admissible evidence.  Photograph should be taken completely.  Area where crime took place & adjacent areas, various angles should be covered in photography If crime scene includes a body:  Take photos to show body‘s location & position relative to the whole crime scene  Take close-up photos of injuries & weapons lying near the body  After the body is removed, photograph the surface underneath.  When size is significant, use a ruler or other measuring scale  Digital cameras allow for enhancement & examination in fine detail.  Videotaping a scene is also becoming popular. Sketches  Once photos are taken, sketch the scene.  A rough sketch is a sketch, drawn at the crime scene,that contains an accurate depiction of the dimensions of the scene & shows the location of all objects having a bearing on the case.  All measurements are made with a tape measure  Show all items of physical evidence  Assign each item a number or letter and list it in the legend  Show a compass heading designating north  A finished sketch is a precise rendering of the crime scene, usually drawn to scale.  Computer-aided drafting (CAD) has become the standard. Rough-sketch diagram of a crime scene. Courtesy Sirchie Finger Print Laboratories, Inc., Youngsville, N.C., www.sirchie.com. 16  Finished-sketch diagram of a crime scene. Courtesy Sirchie Finger Print Laboratories, Inc., Youngsville, N.C., www.sirchie.com. Notes  Note taking must be a constant activity throughout the processing of the crime scene. 17  The notes may be the only source of information to refresh memory.  Tape-recording notes at a scene can be advantageous – detailed notes can be taped much faster than they can be written. Searching the Crime Scene  One person should supervise & coordinate.  Include all probable entry & exit points in search  What to search for will be determined by the particular circumstances of the crime.  Examples:Homicide, Hit-and-run  In most crimes, a search for latent fingerprints is required. Systematic Search Tools for Evidence Collection:  Forceps  Unbreakable plastic pill bottles w/ pressure lids  Manila envelopes, glass vials, pill boxes  Fire evidence must be kept in an airtight container to prevent evaporation of petroleum residues  Clothing must be air-dried & placed in individual paper bags. Chain of Custody:  Chain of custody is a list of all people who came into possession of an item of evidence. 18  Chain must be established whenever evidence is presented in court as an exhibit.  Failure to do so may lead to? Regarding authenticity & integrity of evidence.  All items should be carefully packaged and marked upon their retrieval at crime sites.  Normally, the collector‘s initials & date of collection are inscribed directly on the article.  The evidence container must also be marked with collector‘s initials, location of evidence, & date of collection. Standard/Reference Samples:  The examination of evidence often requires comparison with a known standard/reference sample.  A standard/reference sample is physical evidence whose origin is known, such as blood or hair from a suspect, that can be compared to crime scene evidence.  Such materials may be obtained from the victim, a suspect, or other known sources.  The presence of standard/reference samples greatly facilitates the work of the forensic scientist.  Bloodstained evidence must be accompanied by a whole-blood or buccal swab s/r sample obtained from all relevant crime-scene participants.  A buccal swab is a swab of the inner cheek, performed to collect cells for use in determining the DNA profile of an individual.  Some types of evidence must also be accompanied by the collection of substrate controls.  Normally collected at arson scenes.  A substrate control is uncontaminated surface material close to an area where physical evidence has been deposited; used to ensure that the surface on which a sample has been deposited does not interfere with laboratory tests. Submitting Evidence to the Lab:  Evidence is submitted to the lab either by personal delivery or by mail shipment.  Most labs require that an evidence submission form accompany all evidence submitted.  Enables the lab analyst to make an intelligent & complete examination of the evidence must be included.  Provide a brief description of the case history so the examiner can analyze in a logical sequence.  The particular kind of examination requested for each type of evidence should be delineated.  A list of all items should be submitted. 19 Questioned documents: In forensic science, Questioned Document Examination (QDE) is the examination of documents potentially disputed in a court of law. Its primary purpose is to provide evidence about a suspicious or questionable document using scientific processes and methods. Evidence might include alterations, the chain of possession, damage to the document, forgery, origin, authenticity, or other questions that come up when a document is challenged in court. Principles of Forensic Document Examination: Forensic document Examiners often deal with questions of document authenticity. To determine whether a document is genuine, an examiner may attempt to confirm who created the document, determine the timeframe in which it was created, identify the materials used in its preparation or uncover modifications to the original text. Documents can be examined for evidence of alterations, obliterations, erasures and page substitutions. Or the examiner can Study the methods, materials or machines that created the document, providing key Information that can identify or narrow the possible sources of the document. The ink, paper, writing tools, ribbons, stamps and seals Used in production of the document may all reveal important clues. The examiner may even discover valuable evidence in a document‘s invisible impressions. A key element of document examination focuses on handwriting. Forensic examination and comparison of handwriting, which includes hand printing and signatures, is based on three main principles: (1) Given a Sufficient amount of handwriting, no Two Skilled writers exhibit identical handwriting features; (2) Every person has a range of natural variation to his or her writing; (3) No writer can exceed his or her skill level (i.e., it would not be possible for a marginally literate person who has only learned to produce very basic hand-printed letters to execute perfectly formed, highly skilled cursive writing). Why and When is Forensic Document examination used? Since documents are part of daily life, forensic document examiners work a wide variety of cases. Forensic document examiners are called to investigate the authenticity of documents in situations such as: counterfeiting forgeries identity theft fraud 20  suicides homicides bank robberies kidnappings extortion stalking contested wills contested contracts medical malpractice title/deed lawsuits Forensic document examiners are most frequently asked to resolve questions of authorship. Is the signature on the mortgage loan genuine? Who wrote the anonymous note? Did the deceased sign the will? By comparing documents found at a crime scene to a suspect‘s known writing samples, the forensic document examiner can help confirm who wrote the note and include or exclude suspects from the investigation. Limitations of forensic document examination: The examination of questioned documents may be hampered or limited by the following factors:  Non-original evidence  Insufficient quantity of questioned material  Insufficient quality  Insufficient known specimens submitted for comparison  Lack of comparability between the questioned documents and the known samples  Lack of contemporaneous writings submitted for comparison  Distortion or disguised writing Ballistics: In forensic science, the study of ballistics is the study of motion, dynamics, angular movement, and effects of projectile units (bullets, missiles and bombs). There are many applications of ballistics within a criminal investigation. Bullets that are fires at the scene of a crime will be examined in the hopes of discovering several pieces of information. The actual bullets can identify what type of gun the criminals used and whether or not the firearm is connected to any other crime. The amount of damage a bullet has sustained upon hitting a hard surface xccan help determine approximately where the shooter was standing, what angle the gun was fired from, and when the gun was fired. 21 Any residue on the bullet can be studied and compared to residue on the hand of a suspect, the gun that fired, or any object that was close by when the firearm was used. This information helps examiner uncover the identity of the shooter. When the bullets are missing, the type of impact they made can still lead investigators to ascertain what kind of bullet that criminal used, and therefore the type of gun as well. Studying the marking found on a bullet or the impact a bullet made on any surface can establish exactly which gun the criminal used. Every firearm produces slightly different and unique pattern on the shell-casing it fires; the bullets will therefore imprint a distinct pattern upon anything it hits. Once scientists have identified these markings they can easily match them to the appropriate firearm. There are many experts deeply involved in this study, and they are frequently called upon to help solve crimes. Ballistics details are also commonly input into a large database that can be accessed by law enforcement agencies all across the country. This information can lead to the discovery of the owner of a particular weapon, and assist in tracking down the guilty party who fired the gun. 22  UNIT- 2 PHYSICAL EVIDENCE Physical Evidence: Any material either in gross or trace quantities that can establish through scientific examination and Analysis that a crime has been committed is known as Physical evidence. Physical evidence utilization in other areas of forensic investigation: Provides investigative leads for a case Ties one crime to a similar crime or connects one suspect with another Corroborates statements from witnesses to or victims of a crime Common types of Physical evidence: Blood, semen, saliva, hair, human or animal, biological samples Documents-handwriting, type, ink, indented, obliterations, burned Drugs-illegal substance-sale , manufacture, distribution, use Explosives- explosive charge material and residues Fibers, Hair, Paint Fingerprints, latent and visible Firearms and ammunition Glass-particles, fragments Impressions- tire marks, shoeprints, tracks, bite marks Organs and physiological fluids-existence of drugs or poisons, alcohol Petroleum products-e.g. gas residues, grease or oil Plastic bags-e.g. garbage bag in homicide or drug case Rubber, other polymers- remnants linked to objects recovered in suspects possession Powder residues- gun powder Serial numbers- ID numbers Soil and minerals-e.g. soil in shoes or safe insulation Tool marks-object containing impression of another object Vehicle lights- filament condition Wood and other vegetative matter wood, sawdust, plant material, linking person or object to the crime scene Full Service Crime Lab Physical Science Unit- chemistry, physics, geology on drugs, glass, paint explosives and soil 23  Biology Unit- biologist and biochemists conduct serology and DNA testing of biological material (Fluids) Firearms Unit- Examination of firearms, discard bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, ammo, and clothing for residues are performed Document Examination Unit- handwriting and typewriting studies to ascertain authenticity or source Photography Unit- Digital imaging, IR, UV X ray Other units: Toxicology, Latent Fingerprints, Polygraph, Voiceprint, and Evidence collection units Identification: Identification has its purpose as the determination of the physical or chemical identity of a substance with near absolute certainty as existing analytical techniques will permit. Comparison: Comparison analysis subjects a suspect specimen and a standard/reference specimen to the same tests and examinations for the ultimate purpose of determining whether or not they have a common origin. Individual characteristics Individual characteristics- Properties of evidence that can be attributed to a common source with an extremely high degree of certainty Ears- Rudin Snowflakes- 3 x 1031 Fingerprints- Victor Balthazard mathematically determined the probability of two individuals having the same fingerprints is 1 in1060 Class characteristics Properties of evidence that can only be associated with a group and never with a single source Probability is important- Paint chip- one layer (one car model) vs.. multiple layers (one specific car) Blood example- Product rule- multiply the product of all frequencies = probability one individual possesses a combination of blood factors= 0.44% or 1 in 200 DNA technology provides sufficient factors to permit individualization of biological materials to a person –However the results and interpretation are dependant on other factors Weakness is lack of ability to assign exact or approximate probability to most class physical evidence – (Even for DNA/blood 24 evidence frequencies of populations are known- still requires approximations- Consider also relatives as potential suspects?) Rely on personal experience called upon to interpret significance Some evidence is subjective- e.g. eyewitness, confessions, informants Value of class lies in the ability to provide corroboration of events with data free of human error and bias. Most situations, defining significance of class evidence in exact mathematical terms is difficult to impossible Collective presence of more than one type of class evidence may lead to extremely high certainty that they originated from the same source Significance of Physical Evidence The weight of physical evidence is left entirely to the jury of laypersons Scientifically evaluated evidence take on an aura of special reliability and trustworthiness Need to take proper safeguards to avoid unfairly prejudicing a case against the accused Can be used to exclude or exonerate – Equally as important as conviction Physical evidence collection and documentation:Foundation for reconstruction: Reconstruction supports a likely sequence of events by the observation and evaluation of physical evidence as well as statements made by witnesses and those involved Secure- preserve evidence, safety Search – Critical v Supporting v Property Record – sketching, measuring, photography, videography etc Reconstruct- final goal Team 25 Locard’s Exchange Principle: "Every Contact Leaves a Trace" The value of trace (or contact) forensic evidence was first recognized by Edmund Locard in 1910. He was the director of the very first crime laboratory in existence, located in Lyon, France. The Locard‘s Exchange Principle states that "with contact between two items, there will be an exchange." For example, burglars will leave traces of their presence behind and will also take traces with them. They may leave hairs from their body or fibers from their clothing behind and they may take carpet fibers away with them. Evidence Examples: Paint Physical and chemical analysis of paint evidence (chips or residue) can indicate it‘s class, such as automobile paint, house paint, nail polish, etc. The evidence can be compared to 40,000 different types of paint classified in a database, which can be used to identify a particular make or model of car or brand of tool. Paint evidence can also indicate individual characteristics if an investigator is able to find similarities between two samples, such as the color, number of layers, chemical composition, or a physical match between the edges of two paint chips – one from a tool and one from a crime scene. Glass Glass particles can be found at various crime scenes, such as breaking and entering, hit and run, vandalism, or murder. Glass at a crime scene is analyzed to determine its color, surface characteristics, tint, thickness, density, chemical composition, and refractive index (RI). The results of the tests provide clues about the crime and help investigators connect the evidence to a suspect or other object used in a crime, such as matching glass from a crime scene to a headlight to a suspect‘s car. Explosives Explosive substances can be examined to determine its chemical composition to identify the type of explosive used and its origin. Traces of explosives found on a suspect‘s clothing, skin, hair, or other objects may be matched to explosives from the crime scene. Materials used to make an explosive device will be compared to evidence found in the suspect‘s possession to confirm a match. 26 Fracture Matches When an object broken, torn, or cut, two unique edges are formed, which are referred to as fracture lines. These edges can be compared by the naked eye or with microscopes to see if they fit together , which indicates that they may have been part of the same object at one time. Investigators may compare the edges on pieces of tape, glass fragments, paint chips, pieces of a car from an accident, paper bag, etc. to find possible matches. Wounds Wounds can often be matched to weapons or tool marks on the weapon. Investigators may also be able to determine the weapon's size, shape, and length. Analysis of a wound may provides clues to a victim‘s injuries, characteristics of the suspect (left-handed, right-handed, height, etc.), and positions of the victim and suspect at the time of the incident. Questioned Documents Examiners will analyze a ransom note or other document to find clues to link it to a crime scene or a specific suspect. They will analyze the type of paper used, printing method or handwriting style, and type of ink. Other unique features, such as watermarks on stationary or indentations made as someone wrote on a page in a notebook, may provide useful clues. Insects Flies, beetles, and other insects can provide useful clues about a corpse. Forensic entomologists use factors such as weather conditions, the location and condition of the body, and their knowledge of the life cycles of insects to help them estimate the postmortem interval or PMI (the time between death and the discovery of the body). DNA Investigators can extract DNA from almost any tissue, including hair, fingernails, bones, teeth and body fluids. The DNA is used to create a profile that can be compared to profiles from suspects or victims. CODIS (Combined DNA Index System) is a database maintained by the FBI that is used to find matches to unknown DNA samples from a crime scene. Skeletal Remains Forensic anthropologists analyze skeletal remains to determine four characteristics for a victim: age, sex, race, and stature (height/build).  Sex - Determined by examining the pelvis, humerus, and 27  femur  Age and stature – Determined by analyzing the development of the teeth, bone growth, and the length of specific bones, such as the femur.  Race – Determined by analyzing the skull for characteristics that are common among people of different races. DNA samples can be collected from bone, teeth, and hair to provide clues to a person‘s identity. Scientists may also be able to gain clues as to a person‘s past, recent injuries, or the cause of death based on bone fractures and other signs of trauma. Body Fluids Blood, semen, saliva, sweat, and urine can be analyzed to give investigators information about the crime as well as its victim or the suspect. Chemicals and ultra violet light can be used at a crime scene to find body fluid evidence. Areas with potential evidence are swabbed, bagged and collected in vials, which are air tight and have a low risk of cross contamination. Examples:  Vomit and urine can be used to test for alcohol, drugs, and poisons.  Cigarette butts may contain dried saliva.  Semen containing sperm is valuable for DNA analysis.  Blood can provide DNA evidence and blood spatter can provide clues about the crime. Hair & Fibers Hair and fibers may be transferred from the suspect or the suspect‘s clothes to the victims‘ and vice versa. For example, a suspect may pick up carpet fibers on his shoes or leave hairs behind at a crime scene. Hair can be examined to identify their origin, such as human or animal. Hairs with roots intact can be tested for DNA. Fibers are used to make clothing, carpeting, furniture, beds, and blankets. They may be natural fibers from plants or animals or synthetic fibers that are man-made. Footwear and Tire track examination: Footwear and tire track can be deposited on almost any surface, from paper to the human body. Prints are divided into three types: Visible, plastic and latent. 28 A Visible print is a transfer of material from the shoe or tire to the surface. This tyre can be seen by the naked eye without additional aids. For example: bloody shoe prints left on flooring or tracks left by muddy tires on a driveway. A Plastic print is a three dimensional impression left on a soft surface. This includes shoe or tire tracks left in sand, mud or snow. A Latent print is one that is not readily visible to the naked eye. This type is created through static charges between the sole or tread and the surface. Examiners or investigators use powders, chemicals or alternate light sources to find these prints. Examples include shoeprint detected on a tile or hardwood floor, window sill, or metal counter, or tire tracks detected on road surfaces, driveways or sidewalks. Sample collection: Examiners use several methods for collecting footwear and tire track evidence depending on the type of impression found. For impression in soil, snow or other soft surfaces, casting is the most commonly used collection method. For imprints, examiners generally try to collect the entire object containing the imprint, such as a whole short of paper or cardboard with a shoe print. When that is not possible, for instance, if the print is on a bank counter, the examiner would use a lifting technique to transfer the imprint to a medium that can be sent to the laboratory. As with any evidence found at the crime scene, shoeprints and tire tracks must ne properly documented, collected and preserved in order to maintain the integrity of the evidence. Impression evidence is easily damaged, so steps must be taken to avoid damage to the evidence. This includes securing and documenting the scene prior to collecting any evidence. In the case of impression evidence, general photographs of the evidence location in relation to the rest of the scene are taken, along with high resolution images of the individual imprints or impressions. Examiners may use alternate light sources or chemical enhancers to capture as much detail as possible, especially with latent imprints. Properly photographing impressions in crucial. Since there is only a slight difference between different shoe sizes, if the photographs are not taken at a 90o angle to the impression, then the true size cannot be produced in order to compare to the actual shoe. Whenever possible, impression evidence is collected as is and submitted to the laboratory for examination. For shoeprints and tire tracks that cannot be picked up, various lifting techniques are used to recover the evidence. These include: Adhesive lifter, Gelatin lifter, Electrostatic dust-print lifting device etc. 29 Tools and techniques: During the examination and comparison, examiners use tools such as dividers, callipers, special lighting and low magnification. Examiners measure the various elements within the tread design as well as the length and width of the impressions, and then compare those measurements to what is seen in the crime scene print or impressions. Low magnification and special lighting are sometimes used to determine if various characteristics are accidental or something that was created during the manufacturing process. Examiners perform side-by-side comparisons by placing the known shoe or tire alongside the crime scene print so that corresponding areas can be examined. Tests prints are also compared to the crime scene print. Digital images on double or triple computer monitors can also be used during the comparison. 30  UNIT – 3 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION Personal identification is the process of establishing the identity of any individual whether living or dead. In living, identification is important in cases of amnesia, unconscious, imposters, issue of identity cards, passports, driving license, legal documents etc. Identification in living is done by the law enforcement agencies to identify perpetrators of crime through trace evidence such as bloodstains, hair, foot/shoe print, fingerprint, bite marks etc. In few cases by knowing the function such as speech, handwriting, gait, voice etc recognition of living can be done. In cases of natural mass disasters like earthquakes, cyclone, floods, tsunamis etc., or man- made like aircraft disaster, bomb blast, terrorist attacks, murders, victims of war crime etc where the unidentified body or bodies (either dismembered or decomposed or intact body) are in question, the need to identify the identity of an individual is essential for social as well as medico-legal purpose. Personal identification of an unknown deceased is important for both legal as well as on humanitarian grounds. It is important legally for matters related to wills, inheritance, insurance policies, and prosecution of homicides, detection of fraudulent deaths, estate, debts, accident reconstruction and remarriage. Morally it is essential for closure and declaration by surviving relations and friends. Also accurate identification of dead is required for personal and religious, completion of official records and burial or cremation purpose. Visual identification of deceased becomes hard in cases of fire, explosion, advanced stage of decomposition, mutilation, aircraft accidents or bomb blast. In certain cases charred remains are also recovered from a burnt vehicle or building. Identification of dead body can be done during stages of fresh and intact body, putrefied body, mutilated or dismembered, charred remains and lastly with skeletonised remains. The prime duty in personal identification is to ascertain whether the remains belong to human or not. If the answer is affirmative of being human, further techniques are employed to identity the unidentified body. Personal identification is a field where various branches of science like pathology, genetics, biology, anthropology, physics unite together to derive objective source of identification. The process of identification begins with collection of ante mortem data i.e. any information or document collected, age, hair colour, sex, tattoos, recent photographs etc that would assist in identification. The following figure explains the various evidences through which personal identification is done. 31 The principal approach towards identification process is by estimating and detecting characters of the remains that may narrow down the pool of matches. The objective of personal identification is to link an unknown body to a known identity. The approach may include:  Two sets of evidence have possible origin from the same individual.  Two sets of evidence have no possible origin from the same individual.  Insufficient information to prove origin Identification can be initiated using two stages: first is through technique that lead to positive identification and second stage is identification by limiting probable matches to the individual. Positive identification can be made when the match is sufficient to conclude the common origin of the same individual. Any piece of evidence that might identify the person is relevant. But in some cases there are no clues to suggest identity. Whenever identification is in question it is generalized that DNA analysis is the solution. However, it is not the only method. In spite of one of the advantages of genetics is being able to supply a quantitative 32 result, the lack of relatives to compare with sometimes invalidates its usefulnes. In these circumstances the classical forensic anthropological examination is still useful and exceptional. At that time the anthropological examination is used to assess biological information like age, sex, ancestry and living stature and generates a biological profile of an individual which results in tentative identification. Without a biological profile given by an anthropologist, DNA could be useless. Though genetics is really an excellent tool for identification, in many circumstances the classical anthropological analysis remains as valid as ever, as emphasized by different authors in many situations within the context of human rights violation such in Bosnia- Herzegovina or in mass disasters like the World Trade Centre victims. There is always an urge to develop new scientific method for personal identification by studying various morphological and metrical approaches among different population. Anthropological technique leads to the identification through bones, teeth, body and facial features. The persons specializing in anthropometry are familiar with the biological variations in the population, well informed in comparative osteology, craniometry, racial morphology, skeletal anatomy and functions. Hence anthropologists study the origin, behaviour and the physical, social and cultural development of human in all its aspects. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY Anthropometry has a key role in many human growth and identification studies by measuring human body and its parts for several years. The application of the knowledge in solving practical problems has helped in the investigation of human variations among living population. These results have introduced a new subject of interest with its practical applicability known as ‗Forensic Anthropology‘. Forensic anthropology thus represents the application of knowledge and techniques of physical anthropology to problems of medico legal significance. Forensic anthropologists help he legal agencies to identify the unknown individual (living/dead) during calamities and crime investigation. In cases of unimpaired veracity of bodies, there are not so much problems in identification but identification is much more difficult in impaired veracity of cadaver by different reasons such as an earthquake, tsunami, floods, a war, any terrorist activities or a brutal murder. Forensic anthropology is considered to be an applied subfield of physical anthropology. Traditionally, forensic anthropology deals with the analysis of human remains. Occasionally the remains are fragmentary or charred or sometimes decomposed and forensic anthropologists are called to opine about its origin as well as biological characteristics that 33 assists in positive identification. Role of forensic anthropologists in investigation of unknown is fundamental in field of forensic science. A current definition for forensic anthropology can be found on the American Board of Forensic Anthropology web site, ―Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical or biological anthropology to the legal process. Physical or biological anthropologists who specialize in forensics primarily focus their studies on the human skeleton‖ Today, forensic anthropology is gaining massive popularity and has come into much public attention with need to identify unknown individual. In 2008, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Department of Defence Central Identification Laboratory under a joint venture formed a working group ‘The Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (SWGANTH)’ to develop and propagate best practice guidelines and standard for the discipline. The SWGANTH consists of representatives from forensic, industrial, commercial and academic communities, including international participants. Forensic anthropologists are specialized and educated to interpret findings from skeletal remains in order to understand variations between humans throughout the globe, across geography, between sexes, during life span and between individuals. It is also important to understand the legal, cultural and scientific challenges towards forensic anthropological analysis. PHOTOANTHROPOMETRY Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914) a French criminologist developed a new method which uses ―a system of description and characterisation‖ which could be used with photographs for identification which he called ‗Bertillonage‘. Bertillonage used enlarged photographs to match with the photographs of the skull by using same focal length at a standard distance. Bertillon, who was also a biometric researcher developed a system of description and classification by use of anthropometry and developed an identification system based on physical measurements of head and body. This measurement could be applied to one and only one person and that could be specific to him. Alphonse Bertillon (1890) was first who mentioned, photographs were futile for identification if they were not standardized by using the proper lightening, scale and angles. There is a great degree of variation that occurs in the face during aging of adults that will affect outcomes for face- based systems. Face is the most distinctive and distinguishable part of the human body. Usually we recognise people by their face and their facial features which help to provide information regarding their age, sex and ethnic background. This uniqueness of face eventually helps us to identify a person and differentiate from another face. Face has its individual shape, dimensions and 34 features which can be assessed morphologically as well as metrically. Recently, a question towards the identity through surveillance is on rise with increase in frauds. With the raise in number of ascertain cases of disputed identification in CCTV images and other photographic evidence, there arise a need to develop a new scientific methods using facial comparison technique. In cases related to CCTV images, it is mandatory to provide opinion evidence of identity from examination of evidential images commonly it is termed as ―facial mapping‖ or ―facial comparison technique‖. Facial mapping is a tool for identification of living that involves morphological and metrical analysis. Generally permutation of three approaches is made by expert:  Morphological Comparison.  Photoanthropometry.  Superimposition This type of image evidence is permissible globally. Example in India, Italy, South Africa, USA and in the UK more than 500 court reports on image evidences are prepared per annum. In morphological comparison, facial features with distinct shape and size are categorised. This technique gives reliable results even with poor quality images. Further statistical analysis is conducted and face with similar feature is differentiated. Various studies have showed that the personal identification process can also be done by using anatomical landmarks and measurements or proportions obtained using landmarks from the photograph or CCTV evidence. This form of identification can be termed as ‗Facial Image Identification‘ or ‗Photoanthropometry‘. Photo anthropometry is a metric based facial image comparison technique which requires predetermined facial landmarks for measurement of the face from an image. Here proportional analysis of the distances and angles between anatomical landmarks in the images are calculated and compared. Photo anthropometry is now an acceptable tool in the identification with a manual technique. In the present research to overcome the manual method for identification, a new scientific approach towards photo anthropometry has been made by developing a SAAS (Software at a Service) which works on the principle of facial mapping using photographs which reduces time and labour. This type of analysis can be applied to the large amount of identity document fraud, photo analysis, manipulated or disguised facial photographs etc.With superimposition, one image is projected over another in order to study facial similarities and dissimilarities. Superimposition using 3- D (three dimensional) images is more successful. Despite of any method, only confirmation 35 of non-identity is probable. A distinct consistent difference has more influence than an abundant of similarities. SEX DETERMINATION: It is the first step towards a development of any biological profile. Estimating sex involves identification and evaluation of characteristics that shows differences between male and female which can variably be noted. Sex is primarily determined by reproductive organs and hormones, secondly by muscles and distribution of hair and lastly by physiological differences of skeleton like pelvic bone and skull. Sex can be differentiated by sexual dimorphism or through phenotype. Sexual dimorphism usually relates to the differences in morphology (size and shape), physiology and behaviour. In forensic anthropology, morphological differences are very useful for sex determination. Differences in the size and robusticity display a degree of sexual dimorphism. In the skeleton the best criteria for determining sex are in the pelvic bone and secondly from the skull.These differences reflect the fact that females are smaller, less muscular and more gracile. Standards for sex determination from different bones from several human groups can be found in sources on human osteology and forensic anthropology. The range or distribution of sex variation differs between populations with females tending to be more male-like in some group and males more female like in others. The term ‗sex‘ and ‗gender‘ have distinct meaning. For any analysis and estimations done by anthropologists based on skeletal characteristics, ‗sex‘ is appropriately used. Methods that are developed for estimating sex falls into two categories: Non-metric (macroscopic or visual) analysis and metric analysis. Metric analysis includes measurements based on the landmarks to quantitatively evaluate size and shape difference between two sexes. Metric analysis sometimes involves evaluation of single measurements or numerous measurements. Currently from skeletonised remains, sex is being determined through:  Humeral head diameter  Deltoid tub. Robusticity  Gonial eversion  Genial tubercle robust.  Browridge  Mastoid process size  Temporal line  Ischio-pubic index  Femoral head diameter 36  Bicondylar breadth  Sacrum curvature  Ventral arc  Ridge on sub-pubic angle  Sub-pubic concavity  Shape of symphyseal block  Ascending ramus width  Acetabulum size When any foot or arm or face or other fragmented body parts are recovered at scene of crime, their dimensions can provide valuable information about the gender of the unknown body. There is a statistical correlation ship between body length and body segment which can be calculated using various statistical equations to estimate gender. These dimensional relationships have been of interest to many artists, scientists, anatomists, anthropologists and in medico-legal for many long years. These body segments proportion vary between populations due to genetics and the environment in which they live. Various parts of the body segments respond and develop differently due to the environment and genetics. AGE DETERMINATION: Accurate estimation of age represents an important component in forensic anthropological analysis. This determination of age is important in confirming the correct identity during mass disaster when numbers of possible matches are greater. Determining age in children and young people depends on morphological methods such as radiological examination of skeletal and dental growth. In adults, age determination is difficult. The estimation of biological age in a specimen is related to several biological processes, but particularly the growth, modelling and remodelling of the skeleton, result in age-related changes in the morphology of skeleton components. Age can be estimated by studying the changes in bone growth, development and fusion, formation and eruption of dentals by use of the pattern at known rates. From birth through the growth phase, the criteria for estimating age include: the sequence of dental eruption as well as crown and root development, fusion of epiphyses and apophyses and long bone length. By 20s the growth of bone is complete and age can be determined from degenerative changes in the body. Joints are prone to deterioration and undergoes consistent change over the period of one‘s life, thus age can be estimated by studying this changes. Age can be determined through:  Dental eruption  Bone size and maturity 37  Epiphyseal closure  Cranial sutures  Sterna-rib end changes  Pubic symphysis Current methods of age assessment include precise morphological methods with error margins of greater than ±10 years or complex laboratory methods such as racemisation of aspartic acid in dentin or tooth enamel or radiocarbon dating of tooth enamel with accuracy of ±3 and ±1–2 years. Both of the latter methods result in high precision age estimation. As such, aspartic acid racemisation and radiocarbon dating currently represent the methods of choice for precise age estimation. FINGER PRINTS: No two people have exactly the same fingerprints. Even identical twins, with identical DNA, have different fingerprints. This uniqueness allows fingerprints to be used in all sorts of ways, including for background checks, biometric security, mass disaster identification, and of course, in criminal situations. Fingerprint analysis has been used to identify suspects and solve crimes for more than 100 years, and it remains an extremely valuable tool for law enforcement. One of the most important uses for fingerprints is to help investigators link one crime scene to another involving the same person. Fingerprint identification also helps investigators to track a criminal‘s record, their previous arrests and convictions, to aid in sentencing, probation, parole and pardoning decisions. Fingerprints can be found on practically any solid surface, including the human body. Analysts classify fingerprints into three categories according to the type of surface on which they are found and whether they are visible or not: Fingerprints on soft surfaces (such as soap, wax, wet paint, fresh caulk, etc.) are likely to be three-dimensional plastic prints; those on hard surfaces are either patent (visible) or latent (invisible) prints. Visible prints are formed when blood, dirt, ink, paint, etc., is transferred from a finger or thumb to a surface. Patent prints can be found on a wide variety of surfaces: smooth or rough, porous (such as paper, cloth or wood) or nonporous (such as metal, glass or plastic). Latent prints are formed when the body‘s natural oils and sweat on the skin are deposited onto another surface. Latent prints can be found on a variety of surfaces; however, they are not readily visible and detection often requires the use of fingerprint powders, chemical reagents or alternate light sources. Generally speaking, the smoother and less porous a surface is, the greater the potential that any latent prints present can be found and developed. 38 Principles of Fingerprint Analysis Fingerprints are unique patterns, made by friction ridges (raised) and furrows (recessed), which appear on the pads of the fingers and thumbs. Prints from palms, toes and feet are also unique; however, these are used less often for identification, so this guide focuses on prints from the fingers and thumbs. The fingerprint pattern, such as the print left when an inked finger is pressed onto paper, is that of the friction ridges on that particular finger. Friction ridge patterns are grouped into three distinct types—loops, whorls, and arches—each with unique variations, depending on the shape and relationship of the ridges: Loops - prints that recurve back on themselves to form a loop shape. Divided into radial loops (pointing toward the radius bone, or thumb) and ulnar loops (pointing toward the ulna bone, or pinky), loops account for approximately 60 percent of pattern types. Whorls - form circular or spiral patterns, like tiny whirlpools. There are four groups of whorls: plain (concentric circles), central pocket loop (a loop with a whorl at the end), double loop (two loops that create an S-like pattern) and accidental loop (irregular shaped). Whorls make up about 35 percent of pattern types. Arches - create a wave-like pattern and include plain arches and tented arches. Tented arches rise to a sharper point than plain arches. Arches make up about five percent of all pattern types. Uses of Fingerprint analysis: Fingerprints can be used in all sorts of ways:  Providing biometric security (for example, to control access to secure areas or systems)  Identifying amnesia victims and unknown deceased (such as victims of major disasters, if their fingerprints are on file)  Conducting background checks (including applications for government employment, defense security clearance, concealed weapon permits, etc.). Fingerprints are especially important in the criminal justice realm. Investigators and analysts can compare unknown prints collected from a crime scene to the known prints of victims, witnesses and potential suspects to assist in criminal cases. For example:  A killer may leave their fingerprints on the suspected murder weapon  A bank robber‘s fingerprints may be found on a robbery note  In an assault case, the perpetrator may have left fingerprints on the victim‘s skin  A burglar may leave fingerprints on a broken window pane  A thief‘s fingerprints may be found on a safe 39 In addition, fingerprints can link a perpetrator to other unsolved crimes if investigators have reason to compare them, or if prints from an unsolved crime turn up as a match during a database search. Sometimes these unknown prints linking multiple crimes can help investigators piece together enough information to zero in on the culprit. In the absence of DNA, fingerprints are used by the criminal justice system to verify a convicted offender‘s identity and track their previous arrests and convictions, criminal tendencies, known associates and other useful information. Officers of the court can also use these records to help make decisions regarding a criminal‘s sentence, probation, parole or pardon. Collecting Fingerprints: Collecting Patent Prints Patent prints are collected using a fairly straightforward method: photography. These prints are photographed in high resolution with a forensic measurement scale in the image for reference. Investigators can improve the quality of the images by using low-angle or alternate light sources and/or certain chemicals or dyes during photography, but this is usually not necessary. Collecting Latent Prints One of the most common methods for discovering and collecting latent fingerprints is by dusting a smooth or nonporous surface with fingerprint powder (black granular, aluminum flake, black magnetic, etc.). If any prints appear, they are photographed as mentioned above and then lifted from the surface with clear adhesive tape. The lifting tape is then placed on a latent lift card to preserve the print. However, fingerprint powders can contaminate the evidence and ruin the opportunity to perform other techniques that could turn up a hidden print or additional information. Therefore, investigators may examine the area with an alternate light source or apply cyanoacrylate (super glue) before using powders. Alternate Light Source (ALS): It is becoming more commonplace for investigators to examine any likely surfaces (doors, doorknobs, windows, railings, etc.) with an alternate light source. These are laser or LED devices that emit a particular wavelength, or spectrum, of light. Some devices have different filters to provide a variety of spectra that can be photographed or further processed with powders or dye stains. For example, investigators may use a blue light with an orange filter to find latent prints on desks, chairs, computer equipment or other objects at the scene of a break-in. 40 Cyanoacrylate: Investigators often perform cyanoacrylate (superglue) processing, or fuming, of a surface before applying powders or dye stains. This process, typically performed on non- porous surfaces, involves exposing the object to cyanoacrylate vapors. The vapors (fumes) will adhere to any prints present on the object allowing them to be viewed with oblique ambient light or a white light source. Chemical Developers: Porous surfaces such as paper are typically processed with chemicals, including ninhydrin and physical developer, to reveal latent fingerprints. These chemicals react with specific components of latent print residue, such as amino acids and inorganic salts. Ninhydrin causes prints to turn a purple color, which makes them easily photographed. DFO (1,2-diazafluoren-9-one) is another chemical used to locate latent fingerprints on porous surfaces; it causes fingerprints to fluoresce, or glow, when they are illuminated by blue-green light. Other Collection Methods: In addition to the methods identified above, there are special techniques for capturing prints from skin, clothing and other difficult surfaces. Amido Black, a non-specific protein stain that reacts with any protein present, is typically used for developing or enhancing bloody impressions on human skin. To reveal prints on clothing, high-tech methods such as vacuum metal deposition using gold and zinc are showing promise for the investigator. AccuTrans, a liquid casting compound, can be used to lift powdered latent prints from rough, textured or curved surfaces. AccuTrans is basically a very thick liquid that fills in the nooks and crannies of rough or textured areas where conventional print lifting tape encounters difficulty. Like fingerprint powders, chemical processing can reduce the investigator‘s ability to perform other techniques that could reveal valuable information. Therefore, any nondestructive investigations are performed before the evidence is treated with chemicals. For example, a ransom or hold-up note will be examined by a questioned documents expert before being treated with ninhydrin, since some formulations of ninhydrin will cause certain inks to run, thus destroying the writing. Footprints: For years, criminal investigators and forensic scientists have used fingerprints to determine identity. More recently, footprints have been discovered to be an equally reliable identifier. Every person‘s foot has a unique set of ridges that make up a print unmatched by any other human being. As with fingerprints, the footprint‘s pattern is a unique characteristic that can pinpoint any one particular person. 41 While footprints can be used as a method of forensic science, more often the prints at a crime scene do not come from a bare foot. To compensate, scientists have created methods of identifying shoeprints. The indentations on the ground made by any shoe can be studied, recorded and matched to prints found at other locations. Therefore, if one set of shoeprints is found at the scene of a crime, it can be compared to another set of prints found at a separate crime scene. A matching print tells investigators that the same person was involved in both crimes. To preserve the prints, detectives take detailed photographs that can be scanned into computers for analysis. In many cases, technicians will make a casting of the print. So that a duplicate may be produced. The casting process involves pouring a dense liquid into the actual shoe imprint and allowing it to set. After the liquid solidifies, the casting can be picked up as one piece so that an exact replica will be available for future reference. Forensic scientists can also make other determinations about a suspect based on their shoe print. The size of the shoe allows them to estimate the height of the person in question. By comparing how deep the print is in connection with how solid the soil was and whether or not the ground was damp at the time, investigators can gain a better idea of the weight of the person. All of these methods can help determine the criminal‘s identity. Process of fingerprint/ Footprint analysis: Examiners use the ACE-V (analysis, comparison, evaluation and verification) method to reach a determination on each print. Analysis involves assessing a print to determine if it can be used for a comparison. If the print is not suitable for comparison because of inadequate quality or quantity of features, the examination ends and the print is reported as not suitable. If the print is suitable, the analysis indicates the features to be used in the comparison and their tolerances (the amount of variation that will be accepted). The analysis may also uncover physical features such as recurves, deltas, creases and scars that help indicate where to begin the comparison. Comparisons are performed by an analyst who views the known and suspect prints side-by- side. The analyst compares minutiae characteristics and locations to determine if they match. Known prints are often collected from persons of interest, victims, others present at the scene or through a search of one or more fingerprint databases such as the FBI‘s Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS). IAFIS is the largest fingerprint database in the world and, as of June 2012, held more than 72 million print records from criminals, military personnel, government employees and other civilian employees. 42 Evaluation is where the examiner ultimately decides if the prints are from the same source (identification or individualization), different sources (exclusion) or is inconclusive. Inconclusive results may be due to poor quality samples, lack of comparable areas, or insufficient number of corresponding or dissimilar features to be certain. Verification is when another examiner independently analyzes, compares and evaluates the prints to either support or refute the conclusions of the original examiner. The examiner may also verify the suitability of determinations made in the analysis phase. DNA Analysis The DNA collection and analysis gives the criminal justice field a powerful tool for convicting the guilty and exonerating the innocent. Only one-tenth of one percent of DNA differs from person to person. Although the DNA between people is so similar the small differences can be used to identify an individual, victim or suspect. This DNA evidence is the most important evidence to lawyers, because it is the most accurate method of identifying someone. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has chosen 13 points of Short Tandem Repeats to be used as the base for DNA analysis and aside from identical twins, the chances of these points being the same in two individuals is 1 in 1 billion or greater. DNA analysis is a fairly new technology. The first use of DNA analysis was in the 1980s to convict a man from Portland, Oregon of raping a 13 year old. In this case, DNA samples were taken from the suspect and from the fetus which had been aborted. The DNA was then analyzed and the results were conclusive. The results were conclusive because a fetus has the mother‘s and the father‘s DNA and common sequences between were found between the accused man‘s DNA and the fetus. The accused also confessed and was convicted. There are different techniques to analyze DNA. Most labs have the ability to test Nuclear DNA, which is DNA that is found in the Nucleus of every cell. There are other labs that have the ability to use mitochondrial DNA analysis or Y-chromosome analysis. One of the first techniques used to analyze DNA was Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism or RFLP. This technique analyzes the length of repeating bases in strands of DNA. The repetitions are known as Variable Number Tandem Repeats, or VNTRs, due to the fact that they can repeat from up to thirty times per strand, though the number of time it repeats varies from strand to strand. The RFLP technique also requires the DNA to be dissolved in a specific enzyme that helps break the DNA at specific points. In the case of RFLPs, a large sample of DNA that has not been contaminated is needed. Another method of DNA analysis is Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Analysis. Unlike RFLP, STR analysis can use a smaller sample of DNA. This is because scientists can use a process 43 known as Polymerase Chain Reaction or PCR to amplify or make copies of the DNA and produce the desired amount of material needed. Once the DNA has been amplified STR analysis looks at how many times base pairs repeat at a specific location. This can be repetitions of two (dinucleotide), three (trinucleotide), four (tetranucleotide) or five (pentanucleotide) base pairs. Investigators have found that base pairs of four or five seem to be the most accurate. A special method to analyze DNA is through Y-Marking analysis or analysis of the Y chromosome. This type of analysis helps identify DNA from different males. Another method that is special is Mitochondrial DNA Analysis. This type of analysis uses DNA from the mitochondria of a cell. It has been found that this type of DNA is most useful is helping to solve cold cases because degraded DNA ( DNA that has been improperly stored or stored too long)can be analyzed and can help find a perpetrator. A new special technique Single Nucleotide Polymorphism or SNP are most often used to determine a person‘s chance of contracting a certain disease. Forensic scientists rarely use SNP, but did to help successfully identify victims of several September 11th victims after other identification methods failed. Blood Evidence: Basics and Patterns The discovery of blood in a case opens up a mini investigation within the investigation. This is because an investigator must initially determine if a crime has been committed. It‘s important to determine if a crime has been committed because the presence of blood does not necessarily mean that there ever was a crime. This determination has to be made in a case where a person is reported missing since it will help investigators. The blood found can then be tested and see if it belongs to the victim; if the blood does belong to the victim there is a possibility that a crime has been committed and that the case could change. Blood evidence also comes in to play in criminal cases. Blood found on the blade of a knife could mean that a crime was committed and someone was stabbed- but it could also mean that the victim sliced their own finger. Even though there may be a crime where someone has been stabbed, it has to be determined that a crime was committed with that particular knife. The red substance that has been found is tested. Initially the blood is tested to determine if it is blood, and then if it is human blood. Once the substance has been tested and it‘s been determined that it is blood and it is human blood, it can be determined if the blood came from the victim or the suspect. Blood evidence isn‘t just collected off of weapons, but can also be collected off of the floor or other surfaces in a crime scene. This blood is also tested to determine if the blood came from the victim or the suspect. 44 Besides testing, investigators use blood stain patterns to help determine if a crime was committed. There are different types of blood stain patterns that an investigator looks for, these patterns are as follows:  Drip Stains/Patterns – blood stain patterns that are created due to the force of gravity acting on liquid blood.  Blood Dripping into Blood  Splashed (Spilled) Blood  Projected Blood (with a syringe)  Transfer Stains/Patterns -A transfer bloodstain pattern is created when a wet