Psychology Flashcards PDF

Uncritical Acceptance ​ Believing claims without evidence. ​ Accepting personal beliefs as logical despite lacking factual basis. ​ Motivated by a desire for claims to be true. Confirmation Bias (Cherry Picking) ​ Selecting evidence and arguments to support personal beliefs deliberate...

Uncritical Acceptance ​ Believing claims without evidence. ​ Accepting personal beliefs as logical despite lacking factual basis. ​ Motivated by a desire for claims to be true. Confirmation Bias (Cherry Picking) ​ Selecting evidence and arguments to support personal beliefs deliberately. Phineas Gage ​ Incident: A rod pierced his frontal lobe during a construction accident. ​ Outcome: ○​ Retained language, movement, senses, and memory. ○​ Experienced significant personality changes: ​ Loss of self-control, increased aggression, and incomplete plans. ​ Transitioned from organized and engaged to impulsive and erratic ​ behavior. Superstition ​ Unfounded belief held without objective evidence, even in the face of disproof. Pseudoscience (False Science) ​ Beliefs masquerading as scientific but lacking evidence. ​ Example: Franz Gall's Phrenology claimed skull shape reveals personality traits. Work of Psychological Scientists ​ Employed in universities, businesses, industries, governments, and militaries. ​ Conduct psychological tests, research, or consultancy. Main Categories of Research ​ Basic Research: Seeks knowledge for its own sake. ​ Applied Research: Solves practical problems. Research Areas ​ Cognitive: Studies human thinking and information processing. ​ Educational: Examines classroom dynamics, teaching methods, and test development. Animal Research Benefits ​ Provides principles applicable to humans. ​ Contributions to understanding stress, aging, sleep, etc. Psychologists ​ Clinical: Research or treat mental disorders and psychological problems. ​ Counseling: Address milder issues, e.g., workplace or school troubles. Scientific Observation ​ Systematic: Planned and intersubjective (confirmed by multiple observers). ​ Casual: One person's observations. Introspection ​ Personal observation of mental events (thoughts, feelings, sensations). ​ Limitation: Subjectivity due to individual differences. Approaches to Psychology ​ Wertheimer (Gestalt): Studies experiences holistically. ​ James (Functionalism): Behavior in terms of active adaptation. ​ Watson (Behaviorism): Focus on observable actions. ​ Skinner (Radical Behaviorism): Rejects introspection and mental event studies. ​ Freud (Dynamic Unconscious): Unconscious thoughts influence behavior. ​ Maslow (Humanism): Views people as inherently good and growth-oriented. Perspectives ​ Biological: Explains behavior via genetics, brain processes, evolution. ​ Psychological: Behavior as the result of internal processes. ​ Social: Considers social contexts like cultures and groups. Limitations in Early Psychological Research ​ Gender Bias: Male-dominated research excluded women. ​ WEIRD Science: Focus on Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic societies limits generalizability. Cultural Relativity ​ Behavior must be judged relative to cultural values. Goals of Psychology ​ Description, understanding, prediction, and control. Critical Thinking Principles ​ Require logical analysis and empirical testing. ​ Expertise alone doesn't confirm truth. ​ Evidence quality matters. ​ Maintain an open mind and consider disconfirming evidence. Scientific Method 1.​ Review past research. 2.​ Define a question. 3.​ Formulate a hypothesis. 4.​ Gather evidence/test hypothesis. 5.​ Develop a theory. 6.​ Publish and replicate findings. Types of Evidence ​ Self-Report: Surveys with specific questions. ​ Observational: ○​ Naturalistic: In natural settings without interference. ○​ Structured: Controlled environments with consistent conditions. ​ Physiological: Quantitative data from tools mapping bodily functions. Variables ​ Independent: Suspected cause of behavior changes. ​ Dependent: Measures effects of the independent variable. ​ Extraneous: Factors to prevent influence on outcomes. Experimental Groups ​ Experimental: Receives treatment. ​ Control: Does not receive treatment (for comparison). Experiment Feature ​ Random Assignment: Subjects randomly placed in groups. Statistical Significance ​ Results unlikely due to chance. Nonexperimental Methods ​ Quasi-Experiments: Lacks random assignment (unethical/impossible to assign). ​ Correlational Studies: Observes natural variable relationships. ​ Case Studies: In-depth analysis of a few subjects. Color Vision Theories ​ Trichromatic: Three cone types sensitive to red, green, or blue. Hearing Loss ​ Sensorineural: Damage to inner ear hair cells or auditory nerve. ​ Conductive: Weakened transfer from outer to inner ear. Warning System ​ Pain based on large nerve fibers. ​ Alerts the body to potential damage. Reminding System ​ Pain based on small nerve fibers. ​ Reminds the brain of existing injuries. Kinesthetic System ​ Provides the brain with information about the location and movement of body parts. ​ Allows recognition of movements, such as bending at the waist. Vestibular System ​ Senses gravity, acceleration, and spatial movement. ​ Maintains balance via the inner ear. Multimodal Integration ​ Combines sensory impressions from multiple modalities. Primary Motor Area ​ Receives plans from the prefrontal cortex. ​ Directs voluntary muscle actions via the somatic nervous system. ​ Refines movements with help from the basal ganglia and cerebellum. Multitasking's Findings 1.​ Multitasking is actually task-switching between two activities.  2.​ Task-switching is ineffective for tasks requiring individual attention. Selective Attention ​ Intensity: Focuses on brighter, larger, or sharper stimuli. ​ Contrast: Drawn to changes in stimulation. ​ Personal Importance: Prioritizes stimuli of personal relevance. ​ Goals: Attention is directed toward achieving specific goals. Goals Impacting Attention ​ Yarbus Study: Eye tracking showed attention shifts based on task goals when viewing a painting. ​ Simons and Chabris Study: Focus on counting basketball passes led observers to miss a gorilla crossing the screen. Mind Wandering ​ Positive Implications: Increases creativity and relieves boredom. ​ Negative Implications: Raises accident risks, impairs memory and comprehension, and causes workplace challenges. Illusions ​ Misleading or misconstructed perceptions. Hallucinations ​ Perception of objects or events that do not exist. Synesthesia ​ Clinical condition where sensory impressions cross normal barriers (e.g., sounds evoking colors). Processing Types ​ Bottom-Up Processing: Builds perception from raw sensory impressions. ​ Top-Down Processing: Guides perception using prior knowledge and experience. Example of Top-Down Processing ​ Figure-Ground: Distinguishing an object (figure) from its background. Ambiguous Figures ​ Patterns allowing multiple interpretations (e.g., a vase or two faces). Perception - Similarities ​ Due to Transduction: Similar sensory organs produce consistent impressions. ​ Due to Experience: ○​ Shape Constancy: Objects maintain shape despite retinal changes. ○​ Size Constancy: Perceived size remains consistent despite distance changes. ○​ Brightness Constancy: Relative brightness remains consistent despite lighting changes. Perception - Differences ​ Due to Transduction: ○​ Genetic Flaws: Defects in sensory organs' genetic coding. ○​ Trauma: Environmental factors, such as childhood abuse. ○​ Age-Related Decline: Sensory decline impacting transduction. ​ Due to Experience: ○​ Defaults: Brain relies on learned lighting defaults (e.g., "black and gold dress"). ○​ Cultural Differences: Cultural habits shape perceptual interpretations. Depth Perception ​ The ability to perceive 3D space and judge distances accurately. ​ Develops between 2 weeks and 6 months of age. Depth Cues ​ Binocular: Require both eyes. ​ Monocular: Require only one eye. Binocular Depth Cues 1.​ Retinal Disparity: Slightly different images from each eye due to their distance apart. 2.​ Convergence: The degree to which eyes turn inward to focus on close objects. Monocular Depth Cues 1.​ Accommodation: Lens bending to focus on nearby objects. 2.​ Pictorial Depth Cues: ○​ Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance. ○​ Relative Size: Larger objects appear closer than smaller ones. ○​ Height in the Plane: Objects higher in the visual field appear farther away. ○​ Light and Shadow: Shading provides clues about an object's position. ○​ Overlap: Closer objects obscure those behind them. ○​ Texture Gradients: Detailed textures appear closer. ○​ Relative Motion: Closer objects move faster relative to those farther away. Virtual Reality in Therapy 1.​ Anxiety: Simulated environments (e.g., public speaking practice). 2.​ Crippling Fears: Gradual exposure (e.g., touching spiders in VR). 3.​ PTSD: Revisiting and processing traumatic memories (e.g., battlefields). Communication Verbal Communication ​ Words used in writing or speech. Nonverbal Communication ​ Perception of voice, eye contact, and body language. Methods of Communication 1.​ Oral 2.​ Written Points of View in Communication 1.​ Providing Information 2.​ Receiving Information Genetics Alleles ​ Homozygous: Same alleles from both parents. ​ Heterozygous: Different alleles from each parent. Gene Expression Steps 1.​ Transcription: DNA transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA). 2.​ Translation: mRNA instructions are used to build proteins. Polygenic Traits ​ Influenced by multiple genes, each with small effects (e.g., height). Twin Differences ​ Identical Twins: One egg, one sperm; share 100% of genes. ​ Fraternal Twins: Two eggs, two sperms; share 50% of genes. Genome ​ DNA organized into 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent). ​ Genes hold hereditary information. Dominant vs. Recessive Genes ​ Dominant genes overpower recessive ones (e.g., brown eyes over blue eyes). Factors Influencing Development 1.​ Stress/Poor Health: Can result in smaller, weaker babies at birth. 2.​ Teratogens (e.g., Drugs, Alcohol): May cause birth defects like fetal alcohol syndrome. Early Neural Development Post-Natal Environment ​ The infant brain is highly plastic. ​ Critical period for forming new neural connections daily. Environmental Influences on Development Sensitive Period ​ Early learning environments significantly shape brain development. ​ During this period, children are more susceptible to environmental influences. Deprivation ​ Lack of adequate nutrition, stimulation, comfort, or love. ​ Effects include muteness, physical or emotional disabilities, and emotional damage. Enrichment ​ Stimulating and loving environments can enhance intelligence and emotional well-being. Epigenetics Definition ​ Interaction between genes and the environment affecting development by altering how DNA is read and packaged. Methylation  ​ A process where methyl groups bind to genes: ○​ Prevents transcription (first step in gene expression). ○​ Silences gene expression, turning genes "off." ​ Influenced by environmental factors such as stress or trauma. Key Implications of Epigenetics 1.​ Explains the development of different cell types. 2.​ Highlights the joint influence of genetic and environmental factors. DNA Modifications ​ How DNA is Read: Tags guide which genes are expressed. ​ How DNA is Packaged: Tightly wrapped DNA reduces gene expression; loosely wrapped DNA increases it. Physical Development in Infancy Reflexes 1.​ Grasping: Aids survival by helping infants hold on. 2.​ Rooting: Turning head towards touch to locate food. 3.​ Sucking: Essential for feeding. 4.​ Moro Reflex: Hugging motion in response to sudden movement or noise. Patterns of Development 1.​ Cephalocaudal: Development progresses from head to toe. 2.​ Proximodistal: Development moves from the center of the body to extremities. Developmental Milestones Puberty ​ Hormonal changes drive growth spurts and reproductive maturity. Adolescence ​ A culturally defined transition from childhood to adulthood. Sensory and Perceptual Development Vision ​ Newborns: Limited to ~1 foot distance. ​ By 6 months: Detect shapes and colors.  ​ By 9 months: Distinguish categories like dogs vs. birds. ​ By 1 year: Vision similar to adults. Other Senses ​ Hearing: Newborns respond to loud sounds. ​ Taste: Preference for sweet. ​ Smell: Well-developed at birth. Changes in Adolescence ​ Environmental influences (e.g., screens, loud music) may lead to vision or hearing issues. Vision and Hearing in Adulthood ​ Vision: Macular degeneration, glaucoma, cataracts. ​ Hearing: Reduced ability to hear high frequencies. Emotional Development Infant Emotional Expressions ​ Begin with general excitement. ​ By 6 months: Display basic emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust). Development of Emotional Interpretation ​ By 36–48 months, children interpret others' emotions. Nature vs. Nurture ​ Emotional expressions are shaped by cultural norms and biological predispositions. Emotional Changes in Adolescence ​ Greater emotional intensity and sensitivity. Non-Basic Emotions ​ Require self-awareness (e.g., embarrassment, shame, guilt, pride). Later Life Emotional Patterns Positivity Effect  ​ Older adults focus more on positive experiences and memories. Kubler-Ross’s Five Stages of Grieving 1.​ Denial & Isolation: Rejecting the reality of death. 2.​ Anger: Asking "Why me?" 3.​ Bargaining: Attempting to negotiate for more time. 4.​ Depression: Facing the inevitability of death. 5.​ Acceptance: Coming to terms with mortality. Psychosocial Dilemmas Definition ​ Conflict between personal impulses and societal demands. Erikson's 8 Psychosocial Dilemmas 1.​ Trust vs. Mistrust: Establishing basic trust in caregivers. 2.​ Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Developing independence. 3.​ Initiative vs. Guilt: Exploring and initiating activities. 4.​ Industry vs. Inferiority: Gaining competence and skills. 5.​ Identity vs. Role Confusion: Developing a sense of self. 6.​ Intimacy vs. Isolation: Forming close relationships. 7.​ Generativity vs. Stagnation: Contributing to society. 8.​ Integrity vs. Despair: Reflecting on life with a sense of fulfillment or regret. Attachment and Temperament Affectional Needs ​ Emotional needs for love, care, and positive relationships. Temperament ​ General pattern of attention, arousal, and mood evident from birth. Attachment ​ Emotional bond between infants and caregivers. ​ Strange Situation Procedure: Used to assess attachment. Categories of Attachment 1.​ Secure Attachment: Infant is upset by caregiver's absence, seeks comfort on their return.  2.​ Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Avoids caregiver upon their return. 3.​ Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment: Mixed feelings; seeks closeness but resists contact. Parenting Styles 1.​ Authoritarian: Strict, emphasizes obedience. 2.​ Permissive: Lax, few rules or expectations. 3.​ Authoritative: Balanced, firm yet understanding. Memory Systems Atkinson-Shiffrin Model 1.​ Sensory Memory ○​ Brief, unconscious storage of sensory information. ○​ Types: ​ Iconic Memory: Visual (0.5 seconds). ​ Echoic Memory: Auditory (2 seconds). 2.​ Short-Term (Working) Memory ○​ Conscious processing of information. ○​ Duration: ~12 seconds. ○​ Enhanced by: ​ Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition to retain information. ​ Chunking: Grouping information. 3.​ Long-Term Memory (LTM) ○​ Explicit: Conscious recall. ​ Semantic: General knowledge. ​ Episodic: Personal experiences. ○​ Implicit: Unconscious recall. ​ Skills: Procedural knowledge. ​ Conditioning: Associative learning. Memory Processes Encoding ​ Moving information from working memory to LTM. ​ Enhanced by: ○​ Emotion: Intense emotions create vivid memories (e.g., flashbulb memories). ○​ Deep Processing: Thinking deeply about the material. Retrieval ​ Bringing information from LTM to working memory. ​ Types:  1.​ Recall: Direct retrieval of facts. 2.​ Recognition: Identifying previously learned material. 3.​ Relearning: Gaining forgotten information faster. Forgetting 1.​ Atypical Brain Function: Conditions like Alzheimer's. 2.​ Cue-Dependent Forgetting: Lack of retrieval cues. 3.​ State-Dependent Learning: Recall is better in the same physical or emotional state as learning. 4.​ Interference: New memories disrupt old ones. 5.​ Motivated Forgetting: Deliberate suppression of memories. Factors Affecting Encoding and Retrieval Help Encoding ​ Emotionally significant events. ​ Deep, meaningful processing. Don't Help Encoding ​ Intent to remember or mere repeated exposure. Partial Memories ​ Triggered by incomplete cues or related contexts (e.g., a test question or a friend's reminder). Spreading Activation and Redintegration ​ Spreading Activation: One memory triggers a cascade of related memories. ​ Redintegration: Retrieving a full memory from partial cues. Key Brain Areas in Memory Cerebral Cortex ​ Responsible for language, reasoning, and consciousness. Hippocampus ​ Acts as a "switching station" for transferring information between short-term and long-term memory. Amygdala  ​ Processes emotional memories: ○​ Greater activity for negative emotions like anger. ○​ Damage reduces fear response. Social Development and Relationships Changes in Adolescence ​ Increased focus on peer and romantic relationships. ​ Strained relationships with parents and adults. Emerging Adulthood ​ A socially recognized phase between adolescence and adulthood. Kübler-Ross’s 5 Stages of Grief 1.​ Denial: Rejecting the reality of death. 2.​ Anger: Resentment about the situation. 3.​ Bargaining: Trying to negotiate for more time. 4.​ Depression: Mourning the loss. 5.​ Acceptance: Coming to terms with the situation. Forgetting and Memory Dynamics Motivated Forgetting ​ Deliberate or subconscious repression of negative memories. Passive Forgetting ​ Natural fading of memories over time due to disuse. Active Forgetting ​ Conscious suppression to manage overwhelming information intake. Recovered Memories ​ Traumatic memories recalled after repression. Details may be influenced or distorted by external factors. Memory as an Active Process Active Reconstruction  ​ Remembering involves piecing together stored information. Memory relies on: ○​ Meaning Networks: Pulling relevant and irrelevant details. ○​ Incomplete Information: Irrelevant details can fill gaps, leading to inaccuracies. Source Confusion ​ Misremembering the origin of a memory. Law Enforcement Techniques to Enhance Memory 1.​ Police Lineups: Visual identification of suspects. 2.​ Cognitive Interview: Encouraging witnesses to mentally recreate the crime scene. Memory Strategies 1.​ Chunking: Grouping related information. 2.​ Elaborative Rehearsal: Connecting new information with existing knowledge. 3.​ Mental Imagery: Visualizing concepts to enhance retention. 4.​ Whole vs. Part Learning: Focusing on entire concepts or breaking them into parts. 5.​ Serial Position Effect: Remembering the first and last items best. 6.​ Overlearning: Repeated practice beyond initial mastery. 7.​ Mnemonics: ○​ Acrostics (e.g., "Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge"). ○​ Keyword associations. ○​ Stories or chaining ideas. ○​ Method of Loci: Associating items with familiar locations. Multimedia Principle ​ Combining words with mental images improves learning. Associative Learning Forms of Associative Learning 1.​ Classical Conditioning: Associating two stimuli to elicit a response. 2.​ Operant Conditioning: Associating a voluntary behavior with consequences. Classical Conditioning Components ​ Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally triggers a response. ​ Unconditioned Response (UR): Reflexive reaction to the US. ​ Neutral Stimulus (NS): No initial response until associated with the US. ​ Conditioned Reflex: Learned response to a conditioned stimulus (CS). Processes  ​ Acquisition: Learning the association between NS and US. ​ Extinction: Weakening of the response when CS is no longer paired with US. Operant Conditioning Components Types of Reinforcement 1.​ Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior. 2.​ Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior. Types of Punishment 1.​ Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior. 2.​ Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior. Reinforcement Schedules 1.​ Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses. 2.​ Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a random number of responses. 3.​ Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set time. 4.​ Variable Interval: Reinforcement after a random time. Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers ​ Primary: Satisfy biological needs (e.g., food). ​ Secondary: Associated with primary reinforcers (e.g., money). Observational Learning Definition ​ Learning by observing others' behavior and its outcomes. Steps in Observational Learning 1.​ Paying Attention: Focus on significant models. 2.​ Remembering Behavior: Retain observed actions. 3.​ Reproducing Behavior: Mimic the observed actions. Bobo Doll Study Lessons 1.​ Models influence positive and negative behaviors. 2.​ Learning can occur unintentionally. Cognitive Learning Types of Knowledge 1.​ Factual: Basic pieces of information. 2.​ Conceptual: Understanding ideas and relationships. 3.​ Procedural: Knowing how to perform tasks. 4.​ Metacognitive: Awareness of one's own learning and strategies. Cognitive Processes 1.​ Remembering: Retrieving information. 2.​ Understanding: Decoding meaning. 3.​ Applying: Using knowledge in real-world scenarios. 4.​ Analyzing: Breaking down and understanding components. 5.​ Evaluating: Judging based on criteria. 6.​ Creating: Generating original ideas or products. Mindset and Learning Mindsets 1.​ Growth Mindset: Belief in the ability to develop skills through effort. 2.​ Fixed Mindset: View of abilities as static and unchangeable. Learning Styles ​ Preferred modalities (e.g., visual, auditory). Research suggests catering to styles doesn't significantly improve performance. Breaking Bad Habits 1.​ Look for Alternate Behaviors: Replace the undesired habit. 2.​ Break Response Chains: Interrupt patterns leading to the habit. 3.​ Reduce Cues: Minimize triggers. 4.​ Sensitization and Rewards: Reinforce positive changes. Reflective vs. Experiential Thinking 1.​ Experiential Processing: Automatic, effortless thought. 2.​ Reflective Processing: Conscious, deliberate thinking. Mental Imagery ​ Dynamic and realistic. ​ Involves spatial and sensory details. ​ Temporarily held in working memory. Imagery and Language ​ Kinesthetic Imagery: Mental images formed from muscular sensations, e.g., mimicking shoe-tying when explaining it. ​ Concept: Mental category for classifying things based on shared features. ​ Over-simplistic Concepts Consequences: ○​ Inaccurate reflection of reality. ○​ All-or-nothing, one-dimensional thinking. ​ Language Aspects: ○​ Symbols: Words or gestures representing ideas. ○​ Grammar: Rules for combining symbols into meaningful communication. ​ Productive Language: Generates new thoughts by rearranging words or symbols. ​ Semantics: Study of word and language meanings. ​ Connotative Meaning: Subjective or emotional meaning of a word. ​ Denotative Meaning: Exact dictionary definition. ​ True Language: Includes spoken, written, or gestural systems like ASL. ​ Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: Words influence and shape thoughts. ​ Subtractive Bilingualism: Loss of native language when immersed in a new one. ​ Additive Bilingualism: Learning a new language while retaining the native one. Problem Solving ​ Methods of Problem Solving: ○​ Algorithms: Step-by-step rules for solving problems. ○​ Understanding: Comprehending the problem deeply. ○​ Heuristics: Shortcuts or "rules of thumb" for solutions. ○​ Insight: Sudden realization of a solution. ​ Solutions: ○​ General Solution: States requirements broadly. ○​ Functional Solution: Provides detailed, practical actions. ​ Logical Thought: ○​ Inductive: Derives general rules from specific examples. ○​ Deductive: Applies general rules to specific cases. ​ Barriers to Problem Solving: ○​ Fixation, emotional blocks, cultural taboos, learned restrictions, perceptual habits. ​ Expert Problem-Solving Factors: ○​ Prior knowledge. ○​ Organization of knowledge. ​ Surface vs. Deep Structure: ○​ Surface: Problem's superficial features. ○​ Deep: Fundamental elements. Decision-Making and Creativity  ​ Decision-Making Errors: ○​ Framing: Influence of problem wording. ○​ Availability: Relying on readily available examples. ○​ Representativeness: Judging based on similarity. ○​ Ignoring Odds: Overlooking statistical likelihood. ​ Creativity: Combining mental elements in novel ways. ​ Thinking Types: ○​ Divergent Thinking: Generates many ideas. ○​ Convergent Thinking: Focuses on finding one correct answer. ​ Creative Thinking Tests: ○​ Unusual Uses: Many uses for an item. ○​ Consequences: Outcomes of hypothetical changes. ○​ Anagrams: Create new words from given ones. ​ Creative Thought Stages: Orientation, preparation, incubation, illumination, verification. ​ Creative Personality Traits: Broad interests, openness, independence, symbolic thinking. ​ Innovative Thinking Skills: Make associations, ask questions, network, experiment. Development ​ Babies' Language Development: ○​ 7 months: Babbling influenced by parental language. ○​ 1 year: First real words. ○​ 18 months-2 years: Vocabulary expands, single-word, then two-three word phrases. ​ Chomsky's Language Theory: Language patterns are biologically predisposed and universal. ​ Parent Contributions: Games and shared signals lay a language foundation. ​ Motherese/Parentese: High-pitched, exaggerated speech aids learning. ​ Piaget’s Stages: ○​ Sensorimotor (0-2): Learning through senses; lacks object permanence. ○​ Preoperational (2-7): Symbolic but illogical thinking. ○​ Concrete Operational (7-11): Logical thinking, multiple perspectives. ○​ Formal Operational (11+): Abstract reasoning. ​ Criticisms of Piaget: Overlooks cultural effects, continuous development, early skill acquisition. ​ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Tasks achievable with guidance. ​ Scaffolding: Adjusting teaching to support a learner. Nervous System ​ Nervous System Divisions: ○​ Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord. ○​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Connects CNS to the body.  ​ Somatic: Links CNS to sensory organs/muscles. ​ Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions. ​ Sympathetic: Fight-or-flight responses. ​ Parasympathetic: Rest-and-digest responses. ​ Sympathetic Activation: ○​ Dilated pupils, increased heart rate, adrenaline release, relaxed bladder. ○​ Links to emotional arousal. ​ Neurons: Cells transmitting information. ​ Key Neuron Structures: ○​ Dendrites: Receive messages. ○​ Cell Body: Processes signals. ○​ Axon: Sends signals; myelin speeds transmission. ○​ Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters. ○​ Glial Cells: Support, nourish, and insulate neurons. Action Potentials ​ Neurons' function: Send messages through electrical events called action potentials. ​ Resting potential: Neurons have a slight negative charge when at rest. ​ Fluctuations: Incoming messages excite or inhibit the neuron, raising or lowering its resting potential. ​ Triggering an action potential: Enough excitatory input in a short time causes the neuron to fire. ​ Action potential: A brief change in electrical charge. ​ Axon terminals: Action potential causes the neuron to dip below resting level and become less able to fire. ​ Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons, preventing message mixing by being specific to brain regions. Neurotransmitters & Neuroplasticity ​ Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that move information across neurons. ​ Neuropeptides: Chemicals that regulate neuron activity. ​ Neuroplasticity: Brain's ability to change in response to experience. Genetics ​ Genes: Segments of DNA that code for proteins, the building blocks for body functions. ​ Chromosomes: Thread-like structures of DNA. ​ DNA: Molecular structure that encodes genetic information. ​ Cell nucleus: Contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, inherited from each parent. ​ Neurogenesis: Production of new cells. Brain Research Methods  ​ Brain structure research: ○​ Dissection: Reveals white/grey matter with pathways. ○​ CT: X-ray image of brain/body. ○​ MRI: 3D imaging based on magnetic field response. ​ Brain function research: ○​ Surgical techniques: Direct electrical stimulation. ○​ EEG: Records brain electrical activity. ○​ PET scan: Captures brain activity using radioactive particles. ○​ fMRI: Records brain activity by measuring oxygen and blood flow. Brain Structure & Function ​ Corpus callosum: Connects the two cerebral hemispheres. ​ Lateralization: Different functions in each hemisphere, with left controlling right side of the body and vice versa. ​ Left hemisphere: Controls speech, language, math, and analysis. ​ Right hemisphere: Good for overall perception, emotions, and context. Research on Brain Hemispheres ​ Split-brain research: Studied people who underwent corpus callosum surgery for epilepsy. ​ Left vs. Right brain: Both hemispheres are active, though each specializes in certain tasks. ​ Men vs. Women: Women have more interconnected hemispheres than men. Brain Lobes ​ Frontal lobes: Higher cognitive functions like reasoning and planning. ○​ Prefrontal lobe: Higher-level mental processes. ○​ Association areas: Process sensory information into meaningful concepts. ​ Temporal lobe: Auditory processing (hearing). ​ Parietal lobe: Sensory processing (touch). ​ Occipital lobe: Visual processing (vision). Subcortical Structures ​ Hindbrain: ○​ Medulla & pons: Vital life functions and communication between brain areas. ○​ Cerebellum: Coordination and balance. ○​ Reticular formation: Arousal and attention. ​ Midbrain: Connects hindbrain and forebrain. ​ Forebrain: ○​ Thalamus: Relays sensory information.  ○​ Basal ganglia: Directs movement. ○​ Hypothalamus: Regulates biological functions (hunger, temperature). Endocrine System ​ Hormones: Chemical messengers influencing biological functions and behaviors (growth, hunger). ​ Pituitary gland: Secretes oxytocin for social bonding, milk production, and orgasms. ​ Adrenal glands: Produce epinephrine and norepinephrine (linked to fear and anger). Self-Regulation ​ Hot system: Linked to the limbic system, governs impulse control in the face of temptation. ​ Cool system: Allows reflective thinking on long-term consequences, important for self-regulation. ​ Strategies for improving self-regulation: ○​ Selective attention. ○​ Cognitive reappraisal. ○​ Changing environments. ○​ Saying no. System 1 and System 2: ​ System 1 (Elephant): ○​ Intuitive, automatic, unconscious, fast thinking ○​ Cannot be turned off ○​ Forms associations, impressions, intentions, and feelings ○​ Flaws: Jumps to conclusions, unaware of mistakes ​ System 2 (Rider): ○​ Deliberate, controlled, conscious, slower thinking ○​ Works on information from System 1 to form explicit beliefs ○​ Flaws: Lazy, doesn’t always realize when it makes mistakes Psychology Overview: ​ Psychology: Scientific study of behavior and mental processes ​ Behaviors and Mental Processes: Studied in areas like attention, memory, parenting, criminal behavior ​ Variation: Differences in behavior over time, situations, and between people ​ Measuring Variation: Behavior and mental processes are assessed using variables ​ Challenges: Abstract behaviors (like memory or emotions) are difficult to measure directly Descriptive Methods: ​ Descriptive Studies: Examine individual variables (e.g., memory, depression levels) ​ Characteristics: Report averages, ranges, percentages on variables Sensation and Perception: ​ Sensation: Detection of stimuli by sensory organs ​ Attention: Focus on specific sensory information ​ Perception: Interpretation of sensory information in the brain ​ Challenges: ○​ Naive Realism: Belief that our perceptions are objective ○​ Confirmation Bias: Tendency to look for info that supports our beliefs ​ Transducers: Sensory organs that translate energy into signals for the brain ​ Selective Attention: Focusing on certain sensory input, ignoring others ​ Inattentional Blindness: Missing elements of a scene while focused on something else ​ Change Blindness: Failing to notice gradual changes in a scene Research Methods: ​ Experimental Methods: Manipulate an independent variable (IV) to observe effects on a dependent variable (DV) ○​ Random Assignment: Ensures fair distribution of variables, controlling extraneous factors ○​ Purpose: To establish cause-and-effect relationships ​ Non-Experimental Methods: Study relationships between variables without causality ○​ Examples: Case studies, correlational studies, quasi-experiments ​ Correlation Coefficient: ○​ Sign: (+/-) indicates direction of relationship ○​ Number: Indicates strength (0 to 1), with +1.00/-1.00 being a perfect relationship Memory: ​ Memory Types: ○​ Episodic Memory: Specific experiences ○​ Semantic Memory: General knowledge ○​ Procedural Memory: Skills and habits ​ Memory Characteristics: Varies by time, retrieval ease, episodic nature, and modality ​ Long-Term Memory (LTM): Organized in a network of nodes linked by associations ​ Encoding: Process of transferring information from short-term memory to LTM ○​ Factors Affecting Encoding: Repetition and intentionality don’t guarantee encoding ​ Schemas: Organized knowledge about concepts, situations, or people ○​ Intrusion Errors: Memory gaps filled with typical expectations Lofua & Pickerell (1995) Study: ​ Participants: Involved an older relative (parent/sibling) who shared childhood incidents. ​ Procedure: ○​ Participants saw three true incidents and a fourth false one (being lost in a mall at age 5). ○​ Asked to recall details of each story. ​ Results: ○​ 25% "recalled" the false memory. ○​ Replicated by Shaw and Porter. Learning: ​ Definition: Relatively permanent changes in behavior and knowledge. ​ Memory Role: Permanent means the knowledge is stored in Long-Term Memory (LTM). Children's Thinking: ​ Object Permanence: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when not in sight. ​ Conservation: Failure to understand that properties of matter (number, mass, volume) stay the same even with shape/appearance changes. ​ Egocentrism: ○​ Physical: Cannot consider what the physical world looks like to others (e.g., 3 mountains problem). ○​ Cognitive: Failure to recognize others have thoughts/feelings different from their own (Theory of Mind develops around age 4). Theory of Mind (ToM): ​ False Belief Tasks: ○​ Representational Change Task. ○​ Sally-Ann Task. Memory and Cognitive Learning: ​ Memory Importance: ○​ Past learning stored in LTM aids understanding and remembering new information. ​ Expertise Role: ○​ Prior knowledge helps speed up learning, improves decision-making, and makes processes automatic. Optimistic Bias Factors:  ​ Factors: ○​ Difficulties defining competence. ○​ Poor or incomplete feedback. ○​ Information deficits (lack of proper information). Dunning-Kruger Effect: ​ Definition: People who are incompetent fail to recognize their lack of competence and may feel overly confident. Neural Communication: ​ Neurons: Cells specialized to receive, process, and transmit information via electrical and chemical signals. ​ Capgras Syndrome Example: A person fails to recognize a familiar person (e.g., uncle) as themselves, believing them to be an imposter. ​ Fusiform Face Area: Helps in recognizing familiar faces and sharing information with other brain areas for context. Amygdala and PTSD: ​ Amygdala: ○​ Processes emotional information. ○​ Evaluates danger, triggers fight-or-flight. ​ Evidence in PTSD: ○​ fMRI studies show increased amygdala activity in PTSD patients when exposed to traumatic stimuli. Neural Mechanisms: ​ Resting Potential: ○​ Neuron is inactive, with a negative charge inside (-70 millivolts) due to ion distribution. ○​ Sodium-Potassium Pumps maintain resting potential by pumping sodium out and potassium in. ​ Action Potential: ○​ A rapid increase in voltage (+40 millivolts) when a neuron fires. ○​ Propagation: Action potential travels down the axon like falling dominos. ​ Refractory Period: ○​ After action potential, neuron resets and returns to resting potential. ​ Neural Conduction: ○​ Changes in electrical charges during neuron activation. ○​ All-or-nothing: Action potential occurs if enough excitation occurs. Synaptic Transmission: ​ Communication Mechanism: Chemical signals transmitted across the synapse between neurons. ○​ Presynaptic Axon Terminal: Sends the signal. ○​ Postsynaptic Dendrite: Receives the signal. ○​ Synaptic Vesicles: Store neurotransmitters, release them into the synapse during action potential. ​ Neurotransmitters: ○​ Chemical messengers that bind to specific receptors to affect postsynaptic neuron firing. ​ Excitatory Neurotransmitters: ○​ Make the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire. ○​ Examples: Dopamine, Norepinephrine. ​ Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: ○​ Make the postsynaptic neuron less likely to fire. ○​ Examples: Serotonin, GABA. ​ Turning Off Neurotransmitters: ○​ Reuptake: Transporters recycle neurotransmitters. ○​ Deactivation: Enzymes break down neurotransmitters. ○​ Autoreceptors: Control neurotransmitter release. Neurotransmitters and Emotions: ​ Serotonin: Influences mood, anxiety, and depression. ○​ SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors): Medications like Prozac block reuptake, increasing serotonin levels in the synapse.