Finals Review Psychology PDF

**Chapter 7 -- Development Growth a major problem in developmental psychology** 1. [Is human development continuous or non-continuous] - Developmental change is a continuous process: the view that children and adults have the same kind of mechanism qualitatively - Developmental change is...

**Chapter 7 -- Development Growth a major problem in developmental psychology** 1. [Is human development continuous or non-continuous] - Developmental change is a continuous process: the view that children and adults have the same kind of mechanism qualitatively - Developmental change is a non-continuous process: the view that children and adults understand and act on the world through qualitatively different kinds of mechanisms - step theory - a step-by-step development proposal 2. [Does development take place through one or various channels] Piaget: There is a certain order of developmental stages that everyone in the world goes through Many modern developmental theorists: Different children have different genetic and environmental combinations arguing that development can take place along various pathways because it is possible. 3. [What is the relative influence of nature and parenting] - Individual positions on changes differ depending on whether nature or parenting is more important. - A theory that values nature: Proposes stability of ability or behavior. - Environmentally Important Theory: Thinking that Developmental Environments in Early Life Influence Lifetime Developmental Processes. 4. [An eclectic view] Modern developmental psychologists take a bipolar position on the first three major problems more often than not, they take an eclectic position. 1. Birth: The Beginning of Development Human life begins when it is fertilized within the mother\'s womb. The nuclei of sperm and egg combine to form one nucleus and 46 chromosomes at the beginning of development in the womb. germination: 2 weeks after fertilization, the fertilized egg is implanted in the uterine wall. Embryo stage: 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization, important body organs and tissue formation. Prenatal stage: 8 weeks after fertilization before birth, the body organs formed in the embryonic stage grow and become more sophisticated. 2. Infancy and childhood Young baby \- from birth to twenty-four months \- the first surge of physical development in a lifetime \- Important developments are made not only in physical development but also in areas such as perception, cognition, language, and sociality Childhood \- Early childhood: 2-6 years old - changes in body ratio, weight loss \- Late childhood: 6-11 years old -- logical thinking, reading ability, morality, peer relationships. 1. development of perception [Visual ability]: having adult-level vision around 6 months. [Hearing ability]: Infants can distinguish different auditory stimuli, and prefer their mother\'s voice. [Smell and Taste]: Infants can distinguish between different smells and tastes, and their preferences for certain smells and tastes a considerable resemblance to an adult. [Tactile]: Sensitive reaction when touching the area around the mouth, palms, and soles of the feet. 2. [Cognitive Development ] 1. Piaget theory: Introduction of the concept of schematic, a systematic psychological understanding of the world and things Sensory motor, full manipulator, concrete manipulator, and formal manipulator development \- Schema of each step is qualitatively different \- The order of each step is invariant \- Each step is universal. 2. a follow-up study of cognitive development Recent research reveals significant cognitive performance in children younger than Piaget\'s theory - using an expectation-violation paradigm, infants under 8 months of age understand subject permanence suggestion that there may be Support core knowledge perspective on cognitive development \- Infants are born with key knowledge to understand the world \- Accelerate understanding of new information that this knowledge enters, relevant areas Helping Expeditions Mature Faster \- Infants also have an innate knowledge of basic numbers. 3. development of mental comprehension skills Infants may also understand the behavioral intentions of others differently depending on the context of the situation. A recent study using the breach-of-expectation paradigm shows that younger children have the wrong ability to understand beliefs It shows that it can exist. 3\) The development of moral reasoning skills 1. Piaget theory the idea that moral development is based on cognitive development Three stages of developing moral reasoning skills. \- Conductive stage: before age 5, not following consistent rules \- The stage of heteronomy: six to eleven years old, rule is made by absolute authority the idea that it is endowed and unchangeable. \- The stage of autonomous morality: after the age of 10-11, the rules are social consensus, depending on the situation start to understand that rules can be changed by agreement. 2. [ Kolberg Theory] Present a situation of moral conflict and why the right way to deal with it is Evidence Analysis of whether the response is correct \- Conventional level: mainly referring to punishment or compensation as the basis for judgment. \- Conventional level: maintenance of human relations, social approval, social order, and law as the basis for judgment referring to compliance. \- Sub-traditional Level: Values such as life, freedom, and the right to pursue happiness as the basis for judgment reference to universal ethical principles that reflect. 3. language development Infants can distinguish speech in all languages, but between six and 12 months of age infants can only distinguish speech sounds used in their native languages. Infants also begin to develop their own ability to produce speech sounds and utter words and sentences. Explosive vocabulary around 18 to 24 months. Around 18 months, a combination of two words begins to be fired, a full-fledged utterance. Morphos begin to be included in the utterance as a three-word utterance appears. 4. social development \(1) development of temperament and personality traits Thomas and Chess\'s temperament model \[Table 7-2\]: an easy child, a tricky child, a slow child Conformity Model: Harmony between temperament and parenting environment affects children\'s developmental process rather than temperament itself. [(2) Formation of Attachment] Attachment: Emotional bond between child and caregiver Why do I get attached to it? Psychoanalyst: satisfying oral satisfaction. Activist: Harlow because caregivers are associated with positive experiences: need more than just care to stay alive. Behavioral Indicators After Attachment Formation: Stranger, Separation Anxiety, Social Reference. Design unfamiliar situation procedures and classify the four attachment types stable attachment, instability-resistance attachment, instability-avoidance attachment, and instability-confusion attachment. The internal operating model developed in the process of attachment formation affects human relations afterward. [(3) Parenting Type] Depends on the two dimensions of demand and response. Authoritative type of upbringing: compassionate and sensitive to needs, firm and reasonable and consistent principles (most desirable). Authoritarian type of upbringing: controlled through firm principles but less accommodating and autonomous with little acknowledgment. permissive parenting type: compassionately receptive, but overly generous or consistent parenting an unprincipled parenting attitude. Neglective parenting type: It is not compassionate, and it is intended to control behavior by presenting appropriate principles not even trying. **Chapter 8 - Motivation and Emotion** **1). Motive** 1\) flow of motivational research Initial: Explaining motivation with a concept of instinct based on biology \- Instinct explains goal-oriented biological impulses based on genetics and evolution (1920s) The theory of impetus: When a deficiency occurs, a state of tension is created, and actions are synchronized to resolve it [Awakening Theory]: Organic Pursues Optimal Perception [Incentive theory]: It can be synchronized by attractive environmental stimuli as well as the internal driving of organisms (1960s) The emergence of small-scale motivational theories with theoretical and practical richness, focusing on special motivational phenomena. 2\) Theory of impetus 1\. The restoration of biological needs and homeostasis, hunger -Homeostasis: the balance point of internal conditions that the body must actively maintain A tendency to maintain a constant internal state (e.g., blood sugar) -The physiological goal of decreasing the fall is homeostasis, maintaining a stable internal state\... -Eating behavior is influenced not only by physiological cues but also by psychosocial and environmental cues. 2\. Hull\'s theory of impetus -Assume the internal state of the organism between stimulus and behavior -Appropriate behavior is activated to reduce the motion because the organism experiences discomfort when the motion occurs -Driving activates the action but does not direct the direction of the action. 3\. Freud\'s theory of impetus -Explaining the cause of the action with involuntary impetus -The impetus for physical excitement to be represented in the mind in the form of desire -Seeing many human actions as symbolic expressions of unmet strong impulses or wishes, strong Impulses or wishes act as unconscious impulses, causing tension \- The psychological energy that accompanies the driving force is Lvido. 3\) The theory of motivation from an activist perspective 1\. Handout, reward, reinforcement, punishment \- Handout: an environmental event that prevents actions or acts in advance of actions \- Compensation (reinforcement): increasing behavior as a result \- Punishment: Stimulus that reduces the probability of action taking place \- Incentive theory explains why environmental events can activate behavior. 2\. The neuroscience of reward \- Related to release of dopamine \- Dopamine Circuit (Compensation Circuit): Where dopamine secretion is concentrated in the brain \- A neural network that connects the lateral left nucleus (pleasure center) or prefrontal cortex in the ventral cover region \- The dopamine circuit is activated not only for primary rewards but also for secondary rewards such as compliments. 3\. Addiction \- Drugs or certain actions stimulate the compensation circuit and release dopamine \- When dopamine is secreted abnormally high, dopamine receptors lose function to maintain homeostasis in the human body \- Dysfunction of dopamine receptors requires more and more drugs to achieve the same effect. 4\) [The theory of motivation from a humanistic perspective] 1\. human psychological needs \- The desire for autonomy: wanting to feel that the cause of the action lies with you \- Desire of competence: You want to be a competent person and, given the opportunity, you want to improve your abilities, skills, and talents \- Desire of relationship: psychological desire to form a relationship. 2\. Growth Motivation, Self-Realization Theory Organisms have a tendency to grow and self-actualize (Maslow) Human needs can be distinguished from biological, safety, affection, belonging, and self-actualization needs and form a hierarchy Lower needs are more important than higher needs because they are more closely related to survival, but higher needs are highlighted when lower needs are met Distinguish between deficiency motivation and growth motivation Deficiency motivation relieves tension or pain and seeks homeostasis When deficiency motives are stably met, growth motives come to the fore (emphasis on self-actualization motives). 3\. Internal motivation \- [Internal motivation]: motivation arising internally, such as curiosity, satisfaction, and challenge \- [External motivation]: Motivation arising from an external reward in return for an action \- Internal motivation can be hampered when extrinsic rewards are given to activities of intrinsic interest (excessive justification effect). 4\. theory of self-determination External compensation does not always undermine internal motivation Self-determination theory: External motivation and internal motivation do not exist in a confrontational form, but self-determination Continuously present, from the state of inactivity to the state of internal synchronization, depending on the degree of qualification External motives are classified into external control, internal control, identification control, and integrated control Unmotivated state Internal motivation is the most autonomous motivation in which the pleasure or satisfaction felt in the behavior itself synchronizes the behavior. 5\) an implicit motive \- It is formed over a long period of time, and some motives constantly affect individual behavior but are easily conscious and difficult to express in language \- Implicit motives are implied or inferred from a person\'s characteristic thoughts, emotions, and behaviors \- Four Implicit Motives: Achievement, Power, and Love: Acquired through Experience and Socialization -Achieving motivation: a desire to do well. **2) Sentiments** 1\. the role of emotions in our lives Emotions are multi-dimensional and complex phenomena Including factors such as body changes, cognitive evaluation, facial expressions and synchronized behaviors, and subjective feelings Bio-cognitive behavioral phenomenon and purposeful phenomenon Emotional components: body perception, expressive behavior, conscious experiences, and emotions. 2\. Emotional function Synchronize actions that are necessary for critical situations for individuals Connect yourself with others to help you survive Emotional behavior or facial expressions are a means for organisms to communicate information about their inner state The dysfunction of emotions is the result of inadequate emotional regulation resources of individuals, and essentially emotions are functional in our lives. 4\) Emotions and bodies 1\. James-Lange Theory Perception of the fact that causes excitement leads to physical changes, and the feeling of the body\'s reaction is defined as emotion Physiological awakening is essential to emotional experience 2\. the autonomic nervous system Emotion is a reaction system in which the body mobilizes energy to respond to the imagination it faces \- In a state of arousal, the activation of the sympathetic nervous system, which is likened to a fight or flight response, prevails 3\. the neuroscience of emotions In the presence of threats, the limbic system, especially the amygdala, is activated in the brain Amygdala: a brain region key to the experience of emotions related to self-preservation, such as fear, anger, and anxiety Amygdala activity: Strengthen the memory function of the adjacent hippocampus to remember risks or special events and to prevent unnecessary emotional reactions by connecting to the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for thinking functions such as future preparation and decision-making. 4\) Emotions and evaluations 1\. cognitive evaluation in emotional experience Cognitive processes mediate between significant events and physiological behavioral responses Emotions change not by the event itself, but by cognitive evaluation of what aspects of the event they pay attention to, how they interpret the event, etc The key to the cognitive process of emotion is evaluation Since then, researchers have tried to find a universal evaluation dimension that can effectively explain various emotional experiences -- new, pleasant, goal and consistency, responsibility, coping potential, self-concept, etc. are important for evaluation\... Evaluation theory is a great contributor to explaining why different people experience different emotions for the same event and distinguishing different emotions 5\) Emotions and expressions 1\. Facial expression (Ekman and colleagues) Even though cultures and experiences are different, there is a universal expression Regardless of the influence of culture, the fact that certain emotions are expressed in a consistent expression without experience or learning means that the expression is innate and universal 2.Face Feedback Hypothesis Proposing that certain facial expressions act to activate the experience of certain emotions or at least regulate the intensity of emotions 3\. rules of emotional expression Even though emotions are universal, not everyone always shows emotions in the same way Rules of Expression of Emotions: In the socialization process, learn from one\'s own culture what emotions are appropriate for a specific situation, what emotions are hidden, and in what circumstances Universal but influenced by sociocultural rules when revealing basic emotions 6\) classification of emotions (Ekman and colleagues) have found their own expressions for each emotion, suggesting that emotions of sadness, anger, surprise, disgust, contempt, and happiness are basic emotions based on distinct expressions \- Basic emotions develop and differentiate into various and complex emotions observed in adults A dimensional model that tries to divide various emotions into fewer dimensions emerges \- The distinction between emotional and awakening\... \- Description of emotions as continuous and difficult to distinguish clearly, not as a non-continuous state. 7\) Implications of emotional components The mechanisms by which emotions arise are linked to emotional regulation and treatment of emotional disorders \- Assume that emotions are biological phenomena: deal with physiological aspects to regulate emotions and deal with disabilities \- Assume that emotion is a cognitive phenomenon: dealing with cognitive processes to control and heal emotions - Activist perspective: Regulating emotions with behavioral changes 8\) emotional regulation 1\. the purpose of emotional regulation Emotional control for reasons of hedonistic value, appropriateness, and usefulness 2\. theory of emotional regulation processes Strategies for Emotional Control \- Situation-focused strategy: Control situations by avoiding situations that can cause emotions or changing situations before they occur (situation, situation modification) \- cognitive-focused strategy \- Reaction-focused strategies: expressing emotions, exercising, relaxing, restraining expression, and fleeing 9\) the influence of emotions 1\. Emotions and decision-making Decision-making and emotion cannot be separated You can think normally when reason and emotion are properly harmonized Emotional Injection Model of Cognition: Using one\'s own emotional state as information for decision-making on the subject 2\. Emotions and Memories Events that cause strong emotional arousal are alive for a long time Flash memory: a photographic memory of an emotional event Flash memory occurs but is reported to be no more accurate than other memories in the long run 3\. expression and adaptation of emotions As humans grow, they learn to control their emotional experiences and expressions Active suppression of emotions is an adaptive approach in the short-term Long-term chronic suppression of emotional expression can interfere with the development of emotional ability and lead to decreased emotional expression and desensitization 4\. emotional regulation and adaptation The ability to recognize and regulate emotions is closely related to psychological disorders. \- **Arousal/ Awakening theory** \* The goal of human motivation is not to eliminate arousal but to find the optimal level of arousal \* Motivated to engage in behaviors that raise or lower arousal levels. ✓ High arousal levels motivate to engage in behaviors that lower elevated levels ✓ Low arousal levels often motivate activities that can increase arousal through curiosity \- **Achievement motivation** \* Defined as the desire to achieve significant achievements, the mastery and control of a skill or idea, the desire to be complete, and the desire to achieve high standards. ✓ Those with high motivation to achieve more thanks to the indomitable spirit of the challenge ✓ The indomitable spirit (grit) is important. Grit involves passion and obsession in pursuing long-term goals [- **Facial feedback effect**] [\* Facial expressions can trigger emotions and signal our bodies to respond accordingly] [\* People mimic the expressions of others, and this behavior is sympathetic to others] \- **Behavior feedback effect** \* the tendency for behavior to influence the thoughts, feelings, and actions of ourselves and others. **Chapter 9 -- Personality** 1\. definition of personality Definition of Personality: a unique, consistent, humanistic and affective stable behavior that occurs when an individual interacts with the environment It is desirable to consider both the uniqueness, consistency, and behavior patterns of personality in the discussion of personality 2\. a determinant of personality 1\) biological factors The difference in a child\'s needs or behaviors from birth means that personality is influenced by genetic factors Allport: A Study of Individual Differences in Personality in relation to Brain Action Eisenk : The connection between personality traits and individual differences in brain behavior Twin Study: More Similar Reactions in Fraternal Twins 2\) environmental factors Genetic factors are likely to be modified by environmental experience or stimulation Influenced by parents, families, social systems, cultures, customs, etc The relationship between individuals and their environment can be viewed in connection with learning Newborns\' Desire Frustration -\> Being passive in expressing one\'s own needs Repetition of these experiences can be an important factor in personality formation 3\) the interaction between biology and the environment Twins born with the same gene may have different personalities as they grow up, and brothers raised in the same environment may have different personalities Personality is not absolutely affected by either biological or environmental factors [ An individual\'s personality is formed through the interaction of natural historical conditions and environmental conditions experienced as they grow] 3\. Personality theory [1) the theory of mental dynamics ] 1\. Freud Psychoanalytic Theory: Emphasis on Mental Determinism and Unconscious Motivation Mental Determinism: Suppose that everything a person thinks or says has a meaning and purpose, and that it is already determined by one\'s experience Unconscious motivation: a concept that comes from comparing the mind to an iceberg \- The unconscious is submerged on the surface of the iceberg, a large, deep place with desires or impulses \- The whole consciousness is located right under the surface of the water, accessible with attention \- Consciousness is an individual\'s consciousness and exists outside of the water\'s surface \- The structure of one\'s personality Primary Child (ID): Immediate and Blind Pursuit of Pleasure Self (Ego): Pursuing reality, taking into account the environment or circumstances of attention and predicting the consequences of one\'s actions Cho-ego (Super Ego): a concept that refers to social ideals, moral aspects, customs, etc., which contrasts with the original, and a role like a judge who evaluates good and evil Anxiety is induced in the conflict between primigravida\'s desire and the threat of punishment for primigravida Use defense mechanisms to relieve anxiety. [The Geopolitical Model of the Mind: The World of the Unconscious] ***Conscious**:* a perception, thinking, and emotional experience that one is always aware of a fraction of the human psyche ***Preconscious***: Memories and experiences that you don\'t usually realize but can be remembered as consciousness when you put in effort a bridge between unconsciousness and consciousness ***Unconscious***: Not easily conscious despite efforts to be self-aware \* a repository of desires, emotions, and memories that suppress threatening things when conscious, such as unacceptable sexual desires, immoral impulses, irrational wishes, and shameful experiences \* Unconscious and profoundly influencing thoughts and actions. [Personality development: stages of psychological development] **[Libido]**: the pursuit of sexual pleasure and action sexual impetus that is not easily satisfied in everyday life and is socially suppressed ☆ [Oral instrument]: 1 year old, satisfied with actions such as breastfeeding or finger washing ☆ [Anus phase]: 1 to 3 years old, feeling relieved and satisfied through defecation ☆ [Nam Geun-ki]: 3-5 years old, Libido, who feels nervous and feels pleasure, focuses on the genitals \* Incubation period: By age 12, interest in the body or ease of sexual impulses \* Gastroenterology: Puberty seeks satisfaction through sexual activity rather than sexual daydreaming. \(2) Adler 1\. hypothetical end goal Trying to understand human life from a teleological perspective Human beings pursue a hypothetical end goal The ultimate goal is formed in childhood and works as a basic principle of personality integration 2\. Overcoming inferiority complex and seeking superiority Inferiority is important in personality formation and is the primary cause of psychopathology Inferiority is regarded as a universal human experience, and it seeks to overcome inferiority and seek superiority Effort is the driving force of positive self-growth Inferiority complex: To evaluate oneself too inferior, hide from others, and avoid life challenges Superior complex: trying to compensate for the inferiority complex by overestimating one\'s abilities and confusing the realistic self 3\. social interest **[Social Interest]**: The criteria for a successful life and a healthy personality is how much social interest is included in the way an individual approaches his or her life and tasks three developmental aspects of social concern 1 -Social interest as a natural temperament 2 -Social ability to understand and empathize with others as a personal ability 3- A willingness to value cooperation with others and commit to social benefit 4\. Order of birth and family structure Significant Effects of Childhood Family Experience and Birth Order on Individual Personality Formation First child, second child, middle child, and youngest child \(3) \"Yoong\" the creation of an analytic psychology school Divide unconsciousness into individual unconsciousness and group unconsciousness \- Personal unconsciousness: being stored as suppressed or forgotten in the ego and then being pulled up from the whole consciousness when necessary \- Collective unconsciousness: It has been stored, accumulated, and inherited since the ancestors of the past. It is passed down in the form of culture or customs such as myths, legends, and folk tales prototype: acquired by the learning and custom of symbols and cultures inherited from ancestors \(4) Ericsson Personality development is not a vital part of life, but through the whole life Emphasize self over unconsciousness [Social interaction is more important than satisfying individual needs] All life is divided into eight stages of development and each stage of development -Confidence and distrust (0-1 year old), self-confidence and shame (1-3 year old). -Progressiveness vs. guilt (3-5 years old), diligence vs. inferiority complex (5,6 years old to pre-adolescence). -[identity formation vs. confusion (adolescence), intimacy vs. isolation (early gender popularity),] -productivity vs. stagnation (middle age), integrity vs. despair (old age) 2\) Characteristic theory 1\. Allport In order to understand personality, you need to know the regular disposition that a person shows, and that regular disposition is a characteristic Distinguish between common characteristics and personal disposition **[Personal orientation]** is classified according to the extent to which it is influential \- [Basic Characteristics]: Characteristics that affect a wide range of ideas and behaviors of individuals \- [Central characteristics]: typical characteristics of an individual \- [Secondary orientation]: affect only a limited part of an individual\'s behavior and thinking 2\. Cartel and Eisenhower Personality is viewed as a factor that forms personality, not as a structure of personality Analyzing factors and dividing them into surface and source characteristics \- Surface Characteristics: Appears with outward behavior Easy to observe in everyday life, easily changing to the influence of the environment \- Core Characteristics: Characteristics that form the core of a personality that influences emotions Hard to find easily, consistent and more stable than surface properties Cartel: 16 key source traits extracted Eisenk: Personality theory with 2 main characteristics (which has since been extended to 3) 3\. a five-factor personality model [Five factors:] openness, sincerity, extroversion, friendliness, nervousness Characteristic theorists view personality from a biological perspective as a result of innate brain mechanisms and processes Explain individual differences in personality as the process of activities of the brain system in which each individual responds to the environment 3\) Learning Theory 1\. classical conditioning Watson and other classical learning theorists argue that complex human behavior or anxiety is formed and developed through classical conditioning 2\. operational conditioning It is argued that the formation of character is made by reinforcement and punishment, so it is necessary to find out what is the reinforcement factor in the environment Interested in finding universal human principles that respond to reinforcement rather than individual differences in personality 3\. Theory of Social Learning Behavior is not just a mechanical relationship of stimulus-response, and cognitive processes, which are unique characteristics of humans, are overlooked in classical or operational conditions Observation Learning (Modeling): Behavioral change is possible through observation of other people\'s behavior Learning a behavior does not require practice or reinforcement, but it is essential to observe and strengthen the behavior It is possible to imitate not only individual behavior but also personality **Chapter 11 - Abnormal Behavior and Adaptation** 1\. Problems and Abnormal Behaviors in Life Distorted life in pain and unhappiness appears as abnormal behavior and abnormal behavior accumulates, resulting in maladaptive behavior patterns and developing into mental disorders Abnormal behavior and mental disorders are both a product of past experiences and at the same time cause more pain and unhappiness Abnormal behavior and mental disorders can cause various social problems. 2\. Discriminant criteria for abnormal behavior 1\) Deterioration and impairment of adaptive function Considered maladaptive abnormal behavior when an individual\'s cognitive/emotional/behavioral/physiological/physiological function is deteriorated or impaired, which hinders smooth adaptation a problem \- The line between adaptation and maladjustment is blurred \- Adaptability may vary depending on the evaluator\'s point of view and evaluation criteria \- Difficulty in determining what psychological impairment caused the maladjustment 2\) deviation from the statistical mean Statistical properties, considered abnormal if they exhibit properties that deviate far from the mean Generally, if the deviation is more than twice the standard deviation from the mean, the abnormal behavior rule is defined a problem -If deviated in a desirable direction, it is impossible to apply statistical criteria by measuring all human behaviors \- Statistical criteria are convenient boundaries established by experts and are not based on reasonable theoretical or empirical grounds. 3\) subjective discomfort and personal distress Abnormal behavior that causes an individual to experience significant pain and discomfort a problem \- difficulty in objectively judging the appropriateness of pain \- Difficulty applying consistently because each person feels pain and expresses it differently \- They show maladaptive behavior but do not feel subjective pain and discomfort 4\) a deviation from cultural norms It is defined as abnormal behavior when it shows behavior that violates cultural norms or deviates from it a problem \- The Problem of Cultural Relativity: Cultural norms change with the times and vary with cultures \- The question of whether cultural norms themselves should be applied when they are undesirable 3\. Classification of Mental Disorders: DSM-5 the most widely used mental disorder classification system at present Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5: The Classification System of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association in 2013 Divide mental disorders into 20 main categories and include more than 360 disorders in subcategories 4\. A theoretical position on the cause of mental disorder Loading\... 1\) psychoanalytic theory The first systematic theory that explains abnormal behavior by psychological causes the presumption that all human actions do not occur without cause assumptions about unconsciousness Sexual desire constitutes the most basic human need, the main content of unconsciousness. Childhood experiences, especially interaction experiences with parents, are the basis of personality formation Psychoanalytic therapy consists of a process in which a client can gain insight into his or her unconscious conscious conflict through methods such as free association, dream analysis, and resistance analysis, and to teach insight in real life 2\) the theory of activism Abnormal behavior is caused by the wrong learning of the surrounding environment The process by which abnormal behavior is formed and maintained is classical condition formation, operational condition formation, social learning, etc Explaining by the principles of learning Behavior therapy is a method of removing maladaptive abnormal behavior and applying learning principles that learn adaptive behavior. Methods of removing abnormal behavior: elimination, punishment, formation of hateful conditions, mutual suppression, and systematic desensitization How to learn adaptive behavior: How to create behavior, how to use exchange rates, how to learn imitation, how to train social skills, etc 3\) cognitive theory Abnormal behavior and mental disorders are caused by maladaptive cognitive activities that give negative and distorted meaning to oneself and the world three aspects of maladaptive cognition \- Cognitive structure: having a cognitive structure or scheme composed of cognitive content biased toward a particular topic \- Cognitive products: tend to distort the meaning of external reality in certain directions, and thinking or imagery is negative and unrealistic \- Cognitive process: Significantly exaggerated or distorted the meaning of external stimuli, making it difficult to adapt to reality 4\) biomedical theory The study focuses on genetic factors, structural defects in the brain, neurochemical abnormalities in neurotransmitters and endocrine systems as factors causing mental disorders Mind disorders can be caused by biochemical abnormalities in the brain The brain is an information transmission system made up of nerve cells, which are made up of neurotransmitters Delivered Treatment of mental disorders through drugs that affect neurotransmitters 5\. an anxiety disorder 1\) a general anxiety disorder When chronic anxiety and excessive worry are present in a variety of situations Psychoanalytic Position: Unchanging anxiety experienced by dynamic imbalance between personality structures is a key symptom Activist Position: Results of Conditional Learning on Environmental Stimulus Cognitive Position: Development of Cognitive Schema for Risk Biomedical Position: Benzodiazepine Drugs Reduce Anxiety and Related Neurotransmitters, such as GABA 2\) phobia I feel a lot of anxiety and fear about a particular situation or object, so I want to know about this situation or object evasive disorder Specific phobia: continuous display of irrational fear and avoidance behavior of a particular object or situation Squarephobia: a fear of a particular place or situation that you find difficult to get help or escape Social phobia: a type of phobia that avoids social situations in which it interacts with others 3\) panic disorder a disorder in which a sudden attack of intense anxiety, or panic attacks, is repeatedly experienced Panic attack: a sudden rush of intense fear in unexpected situations, intense anxiety about dying soon In order to be diagnosed with a panic attack, a number of physical and psychological symptoms must be accompanied by intense anxiety Clark\'s cognitive theory of panic disorder: triggered by catastrophic misinterpretation of body sensations as dangerous. 6\. a depressive disorder symptoms of maladjustment in which an individual\'s function is significantly reduced by the physical and cognitive symptoms associated with sadness, emptiness, and irritable moods Major depressive disorder: the type of depression that shows the most severe symptoms Persistent depressive disorder: mild depression appears long term Premenstrual discomfort disorder: Women develop premenstrual depression Disorder of destructive mood control: failure to control unpleasant mood Depressive disorders are triggered by negative life events that mean loss and failure Psychoanalytic Position: An Unconsciously Anger Towards Himself Activist Position: The weakening of positive reinforcement or lack of social skills from the social environment causes depressive disorders Biomedical position: genetic factors, neurotransmitters, hypothalamus dysfunction, endocrine hormones The phase is related to depressive disorder The Most Representative Theory: Beck\'s Cognitive Theory \- Negative and critical thinking is the primary cause of depressive disorder \- I don\'t recognize the automatic thinking of negative content and just feel depressed \- The underlying cause of negative thinking is dysfunctional beliefs 7\. bipolar disorder When a depressed mood state and an elevated mood state intersect In a manic state, when you talk more and faster than usual, your behavior becomes busy and you tend to be full of confidence and do various things \- Type 1 bipolar disorder \- Type 2 bipolar disorder a disorder that is greatly affected by genetic and other biological factors 8\. obsessive compulsive disorder an anxiety disorder that causes unwanted thoughts and actions to repeat Compulsive thinking: painful thoughts, impulses, and imagery that repeatedly penetrate consciousness Compulsive behavior: Repeated behavior to reduce anxiety DSM-5 includes compulsion and associated disability categories : In addition to obsessive compulsive disorder, physical deformation disorder, collection disorder, hair extraction disorder, or skin removal disorder are included 9\. post-traumatic stress disorder If anxiety persists after experiencing a traumatic event - continuous re-experience of traumatic events \- Avoid trauma-related stimuli or become emotionally numb - a sensitive state of arousal persists DSM-5 includes in trauma and stress-related disability categories : In addition to post-traumatic stress disorder, short-term stress disorder, reactive attachment disorder, de-inhibitory social-related disorder, and adaptation disorder are included 10\. schizophrenia a disorder that exhibits the most confusing and maladaptive abnormal behavior among mental disorders a representative symptom \- Delusion: false strong belief in oneself and the world \- Hallucinations: markedly distorted unrealistic perceptions (audio, hallucination, hallucination) - Confused language: illogical and disordered language \- a mental disorder strongly influenced by severely confused behavioral biological factors \- Metabolism of the prefrontal cortex is reduced and excessive activity in the left hemisphere \- a close relationship of dopamine Effects of social and environmental factors are also reported 11\. other mental disorders Personality disorder: When the personality itself is maladaptive and thus fails to meet the socio-cultural expectations to which it belongs and continuously shows behavior that is contrary to the social and cultural expectations, the person suffers and the people around him suffer Physical symptoms and related disorders: Various maladaptive symptoms showing physical symptoms or excessive health concerns due to psychological causes (physical symptom disorder, disease anxiety disorder, conversion disorder, falsehood disorder) Dissociative Disorder: Disability in which consciousness, memory, self-identity, and environmental perception change rapidly than usual (dispersive identity disorder) Eating and eating disorders: various maladaptive problems associated with eating behavior (neurotic anorexia, neurotic bulimia) Sleep-Snare Disorder: Complaints and complaints about sleep-snare due to problems with the amount or quality of sleep (Snare Disorder, Hyper-Snare Disorder, Sleep Disorder, Nightmare Disorder) Neurodevelopmental disorders: mental disorders known to be associated with the central nervous system, i.e., delayed brain development or brain damage (intellectual disorders, autism spectrum disorders, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders, special learning disorders) (Other) Substance-related and addiction disorders, sexual dysfunction, sexual attachment disorders, sexual discomfort, destructive impulse control and behavioral disorders, excretion disorders, neurocognitive disorders. **Chapter 12 - Stress and Health** 1\. What is health psychology Traditional perspective on health: a state of being free from disease The concept of health expands to a comprehensive view that includes physical, mental, and social well-being Research areas of health psychologists \- Development of therapeutic interventions applying psychological principles to improve health behaviors \- Discovering psychological factors that influence disease prevention and developing therapeutic interventions for high-risk groups \- Developing psychosocial interventions that alleviate stress in the diagnosis and management of chronic diseases, enhance quality of life, and increase survival rates \- Identifying psychological and behavioral factors that can improve disease prognosis 2\. What is stress Stress: A multidimensional experience that brings about physiological, behavioral, and emotional changes Stressor: A stress event that causes stress \* Perspective on studying stress \- Stress as a stimulus: Research focused on stress events \- Stress as a response: Measuring people\'s psychological and physiological responses to stress \- Interaction between individuals and the environment: Research on how stress events are interpreted and coped with. 2\) How to measure stress Viewing stress as a stimulus: Classifying stressors into traumatic events, major life events, and daily nuisances. Viewing stress as a response: measuring physiological responses to stress by temporarily exposing stress in the laboratory (acute stress paradigm) \- Tree Social Stress Test (TSST): Takes 15 minutes and consists of three steps \- Individual differences in physiological responses to stress can be identified. 1\) Theories \(1) fight or flight response The body\'s response to stress occurs through two main pathways \- Activation of the autonomic nervous system: the sympathetic nervous system is activated by the hypothalamus, showing various physiological arousal responses \- Activation of the HPA axis: involves the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex \(2) General Adaptation Syndrome Attempt to resist stress by the body Divided into three stages \- Alarm stage: When faced with a threatening situation, the body prepares a fight or flight response by utilizing stored resources due to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system \- Resistance stage: The stage of making efforts to cope with and adapt to the threat when faced with a stressful situation \- Exhaustion stage: The stage that occurs when all resources to withstand a stressful situation are depleted and the threat cannot be overcome, resulting in failure \(3) Evaluation of stressors It is more important how individuals evaluate and perceive stress events than the stressors themselves Primary appraisal: This is done to understand what the stress event is and how it may affect well-being when first confronted with the stress event Secondary appraisal: Evaluation of one\'s coping ability regarding the stressor \(4) Care and Connection There are differences between men and women in stress responses Care and Connection responses contrast with fight or flight responses Women engage in social cooperation and caregiving behaviors when under stress While men prefer stress responses that distract them, such as drinking or exercising, women tend to show responses that involve talking with friends 2\) coping with stress Coping Styles: Strategies used to manage stressful situations and regulate negative emotions Classification of Coping Styles \- Problem-focused coping: Attempts to directly and constructively address the causes of stress \- Emotion-focused coping: Actions aimed at regulating negative emotions arising from stressful situations \- Appraisal-focused coping: Coping by evaluating the situation in different ways \(1) Physical activity Includes everything from light walking to vigorous exercise Regular physical activity not only has physical benefits but also helps psychologically \(2) Smoking\ Behaviors that impair health \(3) Sleep Sufficient sleep is important for managing stress well and preventing illness 2\) Stress and Chronic Diseases chronic diseases: diseases like heart disease, cancer, and diabetes that cannot be cured but need to be managed until death stress can lead to chronic diseases, but conversely, being diagnosed with a chronic disease can also cause stress 1\) Personality Personality traits related to cardiovascular disease: Type A personality \- People with Type A personality: competitive, impatient, perfectionistic, aggressive, and easily angered \- Among people with Type A personality, those with high hostility, irritability, anger, and low patience directly increase the risk of developing cardiovascular disease \- People with Type B personality: optimistic and relaxed Optimism: a personality trait characterized by believing and expecting that good things will happen \- When experiencing adversity, subjective well-being is high, and better coping styles are chosen in stressful situations \- Engages in more health-promoting behaviors and is actually healthier Pessimism: a personality trait characterized by believing and expecting that bad things will happen 2\) social support Material or emotional support obtained from others Social support affects health When under stress, social support can act as a buffer and alleviate physiological responses to stress Both the quantity and quality of social support are important 3\) personal sense of control Personal control: personal belief that one can control outcomes and have an impact The higher the personal control, the less stress perceived, closely related to health Control material \- Internal control material: belief that one can control their own life \- External control material: belief that one\'s efforts are useless and that luck or chance governs their life People with high internal control material feel less stress compared to those with high external control material. **Chapter 13 - Counseling and Psychotherapy** 1\. Definition and types of counseling and psychological therapies Counseling focuses not only on helping normal individuals solve various issues such as psychological thirst, relationship problems, and career paths experienced during their developmental process, but also on preventing problems and assisting humans in growing healthier. Psychotherapy focuses on a wide range of issues, from alleviating symptoms in patients with mild psychological problems to changing personality in those with more serious psychotic issues. Since there is no strict distinction in terms of the treatment process or content, this section uses the terms interchangeably. \(1) Individual counseling: Treatment targeting a single client
The goal is to resolve the issues presented by the client using verbal and non-verbal communication or other tools \(2) Group counseling:
A process where one or more therapists help facilitate behavioral change, problem-solving, and the development of potential abilities through group interaction with multiple group members \- Structured group counseling, unstructured group counseling Therapy group, growth group, self-help group (3)Couples/family counseling:
Treatment targeting couples or family members 3\) Healing factors of counseling and psychotherapy Cognitive Factors Generalization, Insight, Modeling 
 Emotional Factors
Acceptance, Altruism, Transference 
 Behavioral Factors
Reality Testing, Recall, Interaction 
 2\. Counseling and Psychotherapy Theory 1\) Psychodynamic Psychotherapy \(1) Psychoanalysis
Freud views humans as biological beings and believes that the words, thoughts, and actions experienced by humans are determined by internal mental factors. Free association: used to explore the client\'s unconscious material. 
 Dream analysis: separates each element that appears in dreams and 
seeks to uncover repressed desires in the unconscious through 
associations. 
 Transference: the client reenacts relationships with figures from their 
past in the relationship with the analyst. 
 Resistance: thoughts, attitudes, emotions, and behaviors that 
defend the progress of counseling and block change. 
 Interpretation: conveying the unconscious origins of the client\'s 
words or actions for recognition. 
 Insight and rehearsal: recognizing, understanding, and changing 
unconscious patterns through repeated insights into one\'s problems. 
 \(2) Individual Psychology Individuals have an innate desire to overcome feelings of inferiority and pursue superiority, developing lifestyle and social interest to achieve these goals during their developmental process. Life style: Exploring how an individual\'s subjectivity influences both functionality and dysfunctionality while investigating the interaction between lifestyle and life tasks. 
 Inferiority Complex: Individuals have an innate desire to overcome feelings of inferiority and pursue superiority. 
 Social Interest: A means of measuring mental health. 
 Family Dynamics and Birth Order: Influences on forming social relationships and developing lifestyle. 
 \(2) Individual Psychology Alfred Adler\'s **Individual Psychology** is a theory that emphasizes the importance of social connections and the drive for personal improvement. Here are some key points:
 **1.Social Interest and Striving for Superiority**: Adler believed that humans are primarily motivated by a desire to connect with others and to strive for personal success or superiority. This drive is often rooted in feelings of inferiority experienced during childhood
 **2.Inferiority Complex**: According to Adler, everyone experiences feelings of inferiority at some point. These feelings can motivate individuals to improve themselves. However, if these feelings become overwhelming, they can lead to an inferiority complex, where a person feels perpetually inadequate **3.Compensation and Overcompensation**: To overcome feelings of inferiority, individuals may compensate by developing their abilities. Sometimes, this compensation can become excessive, leading to overcompensation, where the person strives too hard to prove their worth. \(2) Individual Psychology **4. Birth Order**: Adler also believed that the order in which a child is born within a family can significantly influence their personality. For example, first-born children might feel a strong sense of responsibility, while later-born children might be more competitive **5. Lifestyle and Goals**: Adlerian therapy focuses on understanding an individual\'s lifestyle and goals. It aims to help people develop a sense of belonging and purpose by overcoming feelings of inferiority and fostering social interest 1.Adler\'s approach is holistic, considering both internal and external factors that influence behavior. His theories have had a lasting impact on psychology and psychotherapy **(3) Analytical Psychology** **Jung believed that the driving force that influences and dominates individuals begins from the history of humanity before the individual\'s birth.** Complex: A group of emotions, thoughts, and memories associated in the unconscious. 
 Archetype: Contents of the collective unconscious, including persona, anima and animus, shadow, and self. 
 Individuation: The process of developing one\'s underdeveloped aspects and filling these aspects of personality more completely. 
 \(3) Analytical Psychology Carl Jung\'s **Analytical Psychology** is a profound theory that delves into the depths of the human psyche. Here are some key concepts: **1.The Psyche**: Jung\'s model of the psyche includes three main components: the ego, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. The ego represents the conscious mind, while the personal unconscious contains memories and experiences that have been forgotten or repressed. Carl Jung\'s **Analytical Psychology** is a profound theory that delves into the depths of the human psyche. Here are some key concepts: **2.The Psyche**: Jung\'s model of the psyche includes three main components: the ego, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious.
3. The ego represents the conscious mind, while the personal unconscious contains memories and experiences that have been forgotten or repressed. **3. Collective Unconscious**: This is one of Jung\'s most famous concepts. The collective unconscious is a part of the unconscious mind shared among all humans, containing universal experiences and archetypes. These archetypes are innate, universal symbols and themes that appear in dreams, myths, and art across different cultures \(3) Analytical Psychology **4. Archetypes**: Jung identified several key archetypes, including the Self, the Persona, the Shadow, and the Anima/Animus The Self represents the unified unconscious and conscious mind, the Persona is the mask we present to the world, the Shadow contains repressed weaknesses and desires, and the Anima/Animus represents the feminine and masculine aspects within each person **5. Individuation**: This is the process of integrating different parts of the psyche to achieve self-realization and wholeness
Jung believed that individuation is essential for personal development and mental health. **6. Psychological Types**: Jung also developed a theory of psychological types, which later influenced the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). He categorized people into introverts and extraverts and identified four primary functions of consciousness: thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition Jung\'s theories have had a significant impact on psychology, psychotherapy, and even popular culture. His work emphasizes the importance of understanding both the individual and the universal aspects of the human experience. \(4) Recent Trends in Psychoanalysis Ego Psychology 
 Interpersonal Psychology 
 Object Relations Theory 
 Self Psychology 
 2\) Cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy \(1) Behavioral Therapy Counterconditioning: A therapeutic technique aimed at reducing problematic behaviors (Relaxation training, systematic desensitization, exposure therapy, aversive counterconditioning) Reinforcement: A method of increasing desirable behavior by removing negative reinforcers or presenting positive reinforcers after the behavior 
 Token economy, punishment 
 Modeling: Learning by observing the behavior of others 
 2\. (Cognitive behavior therapy) Attempts to teach people to thing in more adaptive ways but also to practice their new ways of thinking in everyday life. 
  Ex) Beck's : changing self-defeating thinking look at themselves in new, more positive ways.
 \(2) Rational Emotional Behavior Therapy (REBT) It is assumed that change can occur through the interaction of human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, and by changing incorrect thoughts. 
 A person with problems holds irrational beliefs that include prescriptive, exaggerated, and derogatory thoughts. 
 Through the process of reviewing and evaluating irrational belief systems, it can help choose more efficient thinking. 
 ABCDE model 
 1\) Irrational beliefs \- unrealistic expectations and demands about oneself, others, and the world. \- Absolute and perfectionistic normative demands (must, should) \- Fundamental cause of psychological maladjustment and mental disorders \'normative demands\' \(3) Cognitive therapy A person\'s cognitive schema derived from childhood experiences influences his or her entire life. 
 Individuals may experience psychological difficulties when they have dysfunctional thinking patterns. 
 Enables individuals to recognize and change maladaptive thoughts and feelings by addressing the cognitive system, which is the way in which an individual perceives, interprets, and gives meaning to events. 
 Beck\'s Cognitive Therapy Model 
 \(4) Recent trends in cognitive behavioral therapy 
 Mindfulness Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) 
 Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) 
 Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)치료 (DBT) 
 **3) Humanistic Psychotherapy** **(1) Human-Centered Therapy** Aiming to help the client become a fully functioning person by removing discrepancies between their self-concept and experiences and dismantling defense mechanisms 
 Emphasis on the attitudes that the therapist should possess: Authenticity, Unconditional Positive Regard, Empathic Understanding 
 **3) Humanistic Psychotherapy** Carl Rogers\' Humanistic Psychology is a perspective that emphasizes the unique qualities of each individual and the importance of personal growth and self-actualization. Here are some key concepts: 
1. Self-Actualization: Rogers believed that every person has an inherent tendency to grow and achieve their full potential. This process of realizing one\'s potential is called self-actualization. 2.Unconditional Positive Regard: A crucial element in Rogers\' theory is the idea of unconditional positive regard. This means accepting and valuing a person without any conditions. In therapy, this helps clients feel free to express themselves without fear of judgment. 3\. Client-Centered Therapy: Also known as person-centered therapy, this approach focuses on the client\'s perspective and experiences. The therapist provides a supportive environment where clients can explore their feelings and thoughts at their own pace.
 4\. Congruence: Rogers emphasized the importance of congruence, or alignment, between a person\'s self-concept and their experiences. When there is a mismatch, it can lead to feelings of anxiety and distress. Achieving congruence is essential for psychological well-being. 5\. The Fully Functioning Person: According to Rogers, a fully functioning person is someone who is open to experiences, lives in the present moment, trusts their feelings, and is capable of self-direction and creativity. This person is continually growing and striving towards self-actualization. Rogers\' humanistic approach has had a profound impact on psychotherapy and counseling, emphasizing empathy, authenticity, and the therapeutic relationship. \(2) Gestalt therapy -Sees humans as beings who can be aware of themselves as a whole, freely choose in changing states, and take responsibility. 
 -Believes that individuals must take responsibility for their feelings, thoughts, and actions by being aware of what they do and experience. 
 -When the client\'s awareness is hindered, focuses on increasing the client\'s awareness of their responsibility. 
 -Unresolved tasks: resolved through awareness of the here-and- now. 
 -Awareness: based on experiencing the here-and-now, requiring self-awareness, awareness of the environment, responsibility for choices, self-acceptance, and the ability to connect 
 -The results of the study on the effectiveness of F0 psychotherapy present an optimistic outlook on psychotherapy. 
 -Researchers have different opinions on which methods among the theories and techniques of F1 psychotherapy are more effective. 
 -It may be more important who the therapist is and which client they treat in F2 psychotherapy than the theoretical perspective or therapeutic techniques.